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EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



•y&&& 



TARR AND MCMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 

THIRD BOOK 

EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS 

WITH 

REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



^ALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



WITH NU3IEROUS MAPS AND MANY ILLUSTRA TIONS, CHIEFLY 
P HO TOG RA PHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1901 

All rights reserved, 






THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

MAY. 2 1901 

Copyright entry 

CLASS CL/XXc 
\ 
COP 



6 1 

^XXc N».| 
"* ^ ' — * 



COPTRIGHT, 1901, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



J. S. Cushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith 
Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

Eeview of General Geography. — Following our plan of 
providing frequent -reviews of salient points, we have in this 
book prefaced sections devoted to the continents with a few 
chapters on general geography. Especially important sub- 
jects, such as winds, ocean currents, climate, etc., which served 
as topics in the preceding book, are again taken up. But the 
matter is not merely repeated, for these discussions assume 
some knowledge of the subject treated and carry the inquiry 
further than before. By this plan a review is provided, and, 
at the same time, a more advanced and wider knowledge is 
obtained. 

Eeview of North America. — A common defect in the 
teaching of geography is that the facts previously learned 
about the United States fade from the pupil's memory while 
other countries are being studied. Yet the relation between 
North America and the other continents is so marked that this 
defect is unnecessary. For example, most of the industries 
and important principles of physiography and climate have 
received the attention of a child when he has completed a 
general study of the United States. Foreign lands illustrate 
the same great ideas under slightly different conditions. This 
means that the comprehension of foreign countries may best 
be gained by our children if they use their previous knowledge 
of the United States as a basis of comparison. If, then, this 
old related knowledge is carefully called to mind when the 
physiography, climate, and industries of a foreign land are 
approached, our pupils will not only secure a fuller apprecia- 
tion of that region, but will also keep alive their present 
knowledge of the United States by bringing it into use. 



vi PREFACE 

The above has been a controlling idea in writing this vol- 
ume. Accordingly in approaching the physiography of South 
America (p. 96), the physiography and climate of Europe 
(pp. 150-163), grazing in Argentina (p. 119), mining in Great 
Britain (p. 118), etc., we have reproduced the corresponding 
situation in our own country at some length. Besides this, 
we have included in the text scores of brief comparisons with 
the United States. By this means incidental reviews are con- 
tinually provided, which are especially attractive to both 
teachers and pupils because they contain more of motive than 
the ordinary " review for review's sake." 

To supplement this kind of review several sets of questions, 
which call for still different comparisons with the United 
States, are included in the book, one series being found at the 
close of the treatment of each continent. These are likewise 
rich in motive, inasmuch as they recall leading facts in regard 
to the United States from varying points of view. It should 
be kept in mind also that each set at the same time reviews 
another continent from a new point of view. 

Many of the facts in regard to the United States which 
these questions call for are not presented in the text treating 
of the various continents, and answers for a few of them are 
not indicated in the maps. Also pupils may have forgotten 
other important information about the United States. For 
these reasons Section XXIV, covering thirty-two pages, is an 
organized review of Xorth America alone. It includes the 
principal facts about our continent which every pupil should 
know on completing the grades. In several important respects 
it is different from that presented at the close of our Second 
Book, and possesses, therefore, an element of freshness. 

The title of the last section, " The United States in Com- 
parison with Other Countries," indicates provision for still 
further review. It has seemed to the authors an anti-climax 
to close several years' study of geography with the Islands of 



PREFACE vii 

the Pacific, lands farthest away and of least interest to us. 
On the other hand, it has been deemed highly important that, 
after all the countries of the world have been treated, the 
closing chapter should summarize the situation and show the 
rank of our own land and its relation to others. This secures 
a final reconsideration of the principal facts in our geography, 
while at the same time it brings them into proper relation and 
perspective. 

On the whole, we are of the opinion that reviews should 
occupy a large part of the time of instruction ; and by the 
plan followed we hope that pupils will have a fairly complete 
knowledge of the United States and the rest of the world in 
their possession, not only when they finish the grades, but in 
years to follow. 

Fulness of Treatment. — The plan of this series of 
geographies provides for a fulness of treatment of foreign 
countries corresponding to that of the United States in the 
Second Book. Europe naturally receives most attention, the 
British Isles occupying thirty-five pages and Germany thirty- 
four. Our plan may be understood by reference to the British 
Isles. In that section we state the leading points of history, 
physiography, and climate, and point out their relation to the 
marvellous natural development. The relation of the indus- 
tries and cities to one another is brought out, as well as reasons 
for the supremacy of the British on the sea, their many colo- 
nies, and their vast foreign trade. Such extensive treatment 
frees the earnest teacher from the necessity of overtaxing 
strength in ransacking libraries in search of sufficient material 
to produce reasonably vivid, correct, and stimulating pictures 
in the minds of pupils. 

Suggestions and References. — At the same time this 
volume invites both teacher and pupil to go beyond the text. 
The book is intended for the last two years of the grammar 
school, and probably some children will find the text alone as 



Vlll PREFACE 

much as they can master. But for others some of the sugges- 
tions and references will no doubt prove interesting and lead 
to research. Thus the course of study is made flexible by 
offering more than the average amount of work for those who 
are capable of doing more. Also, by means of the references, 
specific sources are indicated to which the instructor may go 
for further knowledge. 

Physiographic Basis and Causal Sequence. — The same 
close sequence sought after in the preceding work has been 
attempted here. Physiography is considered the basis for the 
causal series of facts, and we have therefore introduced the 
subject freely ; but not too freely, provided each physical fact 
is shown really to function in man's relation to the earth. 
We have endeavored to provide that the effects of carefully 
selected facts about glacial action, altitude, winds, ocean cur- 
rents, etc., may be traced to individual countries in such a 
manner that pupils will plainly see the connection. Physi- 
ography that is clearly shown to have a real bearing upon man 
greatly enriches the subject of geography; it is the unused 
physical geography in the grades that is a stumbling block, 
and this we have tried to avoid. 

Types. — The study of the United States has, as suggested 
above, furnished occasion for detailed treatment of most kinds 
of geographic topics. Some important features and occupa- 
tions, however, are not found in the United States, and to 
these we have endeavored to give the same careful considera- 
tion as was given to other representative topics in the Second 
Book. Por instance, so far as space permits, the Brazilian 
forest is presented as a type of tropical forests on page 113. 
Other illustrations may be found in the treatment of the rub- 
ber industry on page 115 ; the linen industry on page 191 ; 
and the silk industry on page 229. The object is to continue 
to acquaint the learner properly with the basal ^units of 
geography. 



PREFACE ix 

Political and Belief Maps. — We again point to our 
political maps, as clear, artistic, and unburdened with unnec- 
essary details. There is not a city which an American child 
needs to remember that is not to be found on these maps ; 
why then make them larger and less distinct by adding other 
names ? 

The main features of the relief of the country are presented 
in the political maps so that they may be before the eye when 
these maps are studied. But for the study of the relief itself 
we have had prepared a set of continent models. Half tones 
of these appear in their proper places in the book and give 
pictures of the relief of the continents, which are accurate in 
general features and in detail. 

Other Illustrations. — Many black maps are used, some 
to show the location of cities and the distribution of products, 
and some to illustrate the climatic sections. A series of maps 
gives a graphic view of the density of population of the conti- 
nents ; and each continent has its railways represented either 
by special maps (Figs. 119, 394, and 395) or, where the roads 
are few in number, by lines inserted on the political maps. 
The colonies of some of the leading nations are also shown 
on black maps (Figs. 142 and 193) and the great commercial 
routes of the world are represented on a single map (Fig. 433). 
It is believed that this large number of maps, each devoted 
to a specific object, will be found of great value. 

Besides the maps and diagrams there are many half tones 
of photographs selected to supplement the text. They are not 
introduced merely as pictures, but as a part of the fund of 
information offered. For this purpose the half tone is the 
best adapted. There is reason for confidence in the accuracy 
of such views. 

Acknowledgments. — The political and many of the black 
maps were made by the Matthews-Northrup Co. of Buffalo ; 
the relief maps by E. E. Howell of Washington. The world 



X PREFACE 

maps showing the distribution of products (Section XXV) are 
in part based upon maps kindly furnished to us by the Phila- 
delphia Commercial Museum, and a few of them are actual 
reproductions of the Museum maps. Our photographs have 
been selected from various sources ; but in this volume, as in 
those which precede it, the larger number have been purchased 
from William H. Rail of Philadelphia. Through the kindness 
of Commander Webster we have obtained permission to use 
the photographs reproduced in Figures 244, 285, 286, 287, and 
290 ; and Figures 42, 48, 54, 55, 56, 62, 65, 67, 69, 72, 87, 88, 
252, 268, 337, 342, 346, and 348 are borrowed from Ratzel's 
" History of Mankind." A number of European views were 
loaned by Dr. Heinrich Pies of Cornell University ; and the 
wash drawings were made by Mr. C. W. Furlong, also of 
Cornell. 

■Again we are deeply indebted to Mr. Philip Emerson of the 
Cobbet School, Lynn, Massachusetts, for his suggestive criti- 
cism of the manuscript and for further aid in the preparation 
of the section on Australia. Valuable assistance in the prepa- 
ration of statistical tables, books of reference, etc., has again 
been rendered by Mr. P. H. Whitbeck of Cornell University. 
While we have drawn upon many sources for the information 
upon which the text in this volume is based, the extensive use 
that has been made of Mill's " International Geography" and 
the "Statesman's Yearbook" — books that every geography 
teacher should have at hand — calls for special acknowl- 
edgment. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I. GENERAL GEOGEAPHY 

PAGE 

Section I. The Earth as a Planet ...... 1 

Stars and Planets, 1. Ocean Basins and Continents, 3. 
Mountains and Volcanoes, 5. 
Section II. Movements of the Earth and their Results . 8 
Daily Motion, 8. Yearly Motion, 8. Results of the 
Earth's Revolution and Inclination of its Axis, 11. 
Boundaries of the Zones, 15. 
Section III. Maps (Latitude and Longitude) .... 18 

Latitude, 18. Longitude, 19. Longitude- and Time, 21. 
Maps of the World, 22. 
Section IV. Wind and Rain Belts ...... 25 

Winds. Cause of Winds, 25. The Wind Belts, 26. 
Rain. Causes for Rain, 28. Rain Belts, 31. Migra- 
tion of the Rain Belts, 34. Monsoons, 34. Cyclonic 
Storms, 38. 
Section V. Distribution of Temperature and a Study of 

Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . .41 

Distribution of Temperature. Effect of Highlands, 41. 
Effect of Distance from Sea, 41. Effect of Prevail- 
ing Winds, 44. Ocean Currents. Cause of Ocean Cur- 
rents, 45. The Pacific Currents, 46. Eddies of the 
Southern Oceans, 48. North Atlantic Currents, 48. 
Section VI. Plants and Animals ...... 52 

Zones of Life, 52. Tropical Forest Belt, 52. Savannas, 
55. The Desert, 57. Life in Temperate Zones, 59. 
Steppes and Arid Plains, 60. Prairies, 61. Forests of 
the Temperate Zone, 61. People of the Temperate 
Zone, 62. Life in the Frigid Zone, 63. Oceanic Life, 
64. Causes for Distribution of Plants and Animals, 65. 
xi 



xii TABLE OF COX TENTS 

PAGE 

Section VII. The Human Race 71 

Divisions of Mankind. Ethiopians, 71. American In- 
dians, 72. Mongolians, 73. Caucasians, 74. Distribution 
of Races, 75. Development of Civilization. Need of 
Food, 78. Development of Agriculture, 79. Develop- 
ment of Grazing, 80. Development of Fishing, 82. 
Development in the Temperate Zone, 82. Shelter, 82. 
Sites for Houses, 84. Towns and Cities, 85. Clothing, 
86. The Development of Language, 87. Inventions, 
88. Development of the State, 89. Development of 
Religion, 91. 

PART II. SOUTH AMERICA 

Section VIII 96 

Introductory Sections. Physiography, 96. Climate, 100. 
Plant Life, 104. Animal Life, 105. The People, 107. 
Brazil. Physiography and Climate, 112. The Tropical 
Forest, 113. Products of the Forest, 115. Coffee 
Raising, 116. Other Industries in Brazil, 117. Cities, 
117. Argentina. Physiography and Climate, 118. Cattle 
Raising, 119. Farming, 121. Manufacturing and Com- 
merce, 122. Cities, 123. Uruguay and Paraguay. Uru- 
guay, 123. Paraguay, 124. The Guianas and Vene- 
zuela. The Guianas, 125. Venezuela, 127. Tropical 
Andean Countries. Points of Resemblance, 129. Co- 
lombia, 132. Ecuador, 133. Peru, 136. Bolivia, 140. 
Chile. Physiography and Climate, 142. Mineral 
Wealth, 143. Agriculture, Manufacturing, and Gen- 
eral Development, 144. Cities, 145. Islands near the 
Continent, 145. 

PART III. EUROPE 

Section IX. Physiography, Climate, and People . . . 149 
Phrysiography. Highlands and Lowlands, 150. Coal 
Beds, 153. The Great Ice Sheet, 154. The Coast Line, 
156. Climate. Influence of Latitude, 157. Resem- 
blance to Western North America, 160. Influence of 
Cyclonic Storms, 161. Effect of Mountain Ranges, 162. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlii 



Inland Seas, 163. People. Their Origin, 164. The 
Greeks, 164. The Romans, 165. Decline of the Roman 
Empire, 166. Later Development of 'European Nations, 
167. Influence of the Discovery of America, 171. 

Section X. The British Isles ....... 173 

Inhabitants, 173. Position, Size, and Importance, 174. 
Physiography and Climate, 175. Kinds of Industries, 
179. Agriculture, 180. Fishing, 182. Mining, 183. 
Reasons for Development of Manufacturing, 185. 
Woollen and Cotton Manufactures, 186. Iron and 
Steel Manufacturing, 188. Ireland, 189. Location of 
Principal Cities, 192. London, 194. Other English 
Cities, 197. Cities of Scotland, 198. Cities of Ireland, 
199. Scenery-, 200. Fuller Reasons for the Greatness 
of the British Empire, 201. Government, 205. 

Section XI. The Netherlands and Belgium . . . . 208 
The Netherlands (Holland). Physiography, 208. People 
and Government, 209. Agriculture, 210. Reclaimed 
Land, 210. Manufacturing, 212. Commerce, 213. Colo- 
nies, 213. Cities, 215. Belgium. Phisiography, 216. 
People and Government, 216. Agriculture, 217. Mining 
and Manufacturing, 218. Commerce, 219. Cities, 219. 
Luxemburg, 220. 

Section XII. France 222 

People and Government, 222. Physiography and Climate, 
224. Agriculture, 225. Minerals, 226. Manufactur- 
ing, 227. Wool and Cotton Manufactures, 228. Silk 
Manufacturing, 229. Other Manufactures, 230. Paris, 
231. {Location, 231 ; Paris as an Art Centre, 231 ; Manu- 
factures of Paris, 234; Commerce of Paris, 234.) Other 
Cities, 234. Commerce of France, 236. Colonies, 236. 

Section XIII. Spain and Portugal 238 

People and Government, 238. Physiography and Climate, 
241. Agriculture and Grazing, 242. Mining, 244. 
Manufacturing, 245. Principal Cities of Spain, 245. 
Colonies of Spain, 248. Principal Cities and Colonies 
of Portugal, 249. 

Section XIV. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark . . . 251 

People, 251. Physiography and Climate, 252. Agricultu- 
ral Districts, 253. Industries and Cities of Norway, 



xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 



254. Scenery on the Western Coast, 257. Industries 
and Cities of Sweden, 258. Industries and Cities of 
Denmark, 261. Colonies of Denmark, 262. 

Section XV. Russia 264 

Size and Position, 264. Physiography, 265. Climate, 266. 
Climatic Belts, 266. People and Government, 267. 
Lumbering, 269. Farming and Grazing, 269. Mineral 
Wealth, 270. Manufacturing, 271. Principal Cities 
and their Commerce. Moscow and Nijni Novgorod, 
271. St. Petersburg, 273. Odessa, 274. Warsaw and 
Lodz, 275. 

Section XVI. German Empire ....... 277 

Extent and Position, 277. People and Government, 278. 
Defence, 279. Physiography, 281. Climate, 283. For- 
ests, 284. Agriculture and Grazing, 285. Mining, 286. 
Manufacturing, 287. Germany's Rapid Advance, 289. 
Colonies and Emigrants, 291. Principal Cities and their 
Commerce. Berlin, 292. Interior Cities near Berlin, 
294. Seaports, 296. Cities along the Rhine, 297. 

Section XVII. Switzerland ....... 301 

Physiography and Climate, 301. People and Government, 
302. Farming, 303. Manufacturing, 304. Leading 
Cities, 305. Scenery and Tourists, 307. 

Section XVIII. Italy 309 

Extent and Position, 309. People and Government, 309. 
Physiography and Climate, 310. Agriculture, 312. 
Mining and Fishing, 314. Manufacturing, 315. Prin- 
cipal Cities, 316. (Naples and Vicinity, 316; Home, 318; 
Other Italian Cities, 321.) San Marino and Malta, 324. 

Section XIX. Austria-Hungary ....... 326 

Physiography and Climate, 326. People and Government, 
329. Rain Products, Natural Resources, 331. Manu- 
facturing and Commerce, 332. Principal Cities, 334. 
Small Countries, 337. 

Section XX. The Balkan Peninsula ...... 338 

Physiography and Climate, 338. People, 339. Monte- 
negro, 341. Servia, 341. Roumania and Bulgaria, 342. 
Turkey in Europe, 343. Greece, 346. Islands near 
Greece, 350. Review of Europe and Comparison ■with 
North America. 351. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 



PART IV. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND 
ISLAND GROUPS 

PAGE 

Section XXI. Asia 353 

Size and Position, 353. Physiography, 354. Climate, 358. 
Plants and Animals, 359. People, 3(33. Turkish or 
Ottoman Empire, 365. (Conditions in the Empire, 366; 
The Hohj Land, 369; Mesopotamia, 372.) Arabia, 372. 
Persia, 374. Afghanistan, 376. Russia in Asia, 378. 
India, 381. {Physiography and Climate, 381; Farming, 
382 ; Forest and Wild Animals, 384 ; Domestic Animals, 

385 ; Mining and Manufacturing, 386 ; Famines and Plagues, 

386 ; People, 387 ; Beligion, 387 ; Government, 388 ; Balu- 
chistan and Burma, 390 ; Base of Himalayas, 390 ; Other 
Countries, 390 ; Principal Cities, 391.) Ceylon, 393. 
Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula, 393. (Siam, 394 ; 
French Indo-China, 395 ; Straits Settlements, 395.) Chinese 
Empire, 396. (Area and Population, 396 ; Climate, 397 ; 
People and Civilization, 398 ; Natural Resources, 402 ; Gov- 
ernment, 403; Principal Cities, 404.) Korea, 405. Japan, 
405. (Physiography and Climate, 406 ; People and Govern- 
ment, 407; Becent Advance, 408; Resources, 410; Principal 
Cities, 410.) 

Section XXII. Africa ......... 415 

Physiography, 415. Climate, 417. Plants and Animals, 
419. The People, 422. Exploration and Settlement, 
424. Northern Africa. Political Divisions, 427. The 
Sahara, 427. Egypt and Neighboring British Terri- 
tory, 430. ( The Nile, 430 ; Agriculture, 433 ; The People, 
434; Suez Caned, 438; Cities, 439.) The Barbary States, 
440. Southern Africa. Comparison "\vith Northern 
Africa, 444. The People, 445. Agriculture and Graz- 
ing, 446. Mineral Wealth, 448. Commerce and Cities, 
449. Central Africa. The Rivers, 451. Resources, 453. 
The People, 453. Divisions of Central Africa, 455. 
Need of Railways, 457. Islands near Africa, 458. 

Section XXIII. Australia and Island Groups .... 461 
Australia. Physiography, 461. Climate, 464. Plants 
and Animals, 406. History, 468. Sheep Raising, 471. 



xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Animal Products, 473. Farming, 474. Mining, 475. 
Manufacturing, 475. Cities, 476. Island Groups. New 
Zealand, 478. The East Indies, 480. Islands of the 
Pacific, 482. 

Section XXIV. Review of North America .... 487 
Growth of the Continent, 487. The United States. 
Physiography, 488. Climate, 492. Industries, 493. Lum- 
bering, 493 ; Fishing, 495 ; Agriculture and Related Manu- 
facturing, 495 ; Mining and Manufacturing dependent upon 
Mining, 504; Manufacturing, 510; Commerce, 511. Gov- 
ernment, 514. Outlying Territories and Dependencies 
of the United States. Alaska, 515. Cuba and Porto 
Rico, 515. Hawaiian Islands, 515. Guam and Samoa, 
516. Philippine Islands, 516. Countries North of the 
United States. Canada and Newfoundland, 516. Isl- 
ands North of North America, 518. Countries South 
of the United States. Mexico, 519. Central America, 
520. Islands, 521. 

Section XXV. The United States in Comparison with Other 

Countries .......... 523 

Area and Population, 523. Leading Raw Products, 524. 
Manufacturing and Commerce, 530. Dependence upon 
other Nations, 533. Exports and Imports, 537. Reasons 
for the Rank of the United States, 540. 

Appendix I. References to Books, Articles, etc. . . 542 

Appendix II. Tables of Area, Population, etc. . . . 548 



LIST OF MAPS 



COLORED POLITICAL MAPS 



FIGURE 

75. South America 

122. The British Isles . 

154. Western Europe 

172. Europe . 

200. Central Europe 

241. Asia 

258. Holt Land 

297. Africa 

338. Australia 

356. North America 

357. United States 

358. New England . 

359. Middle Atlantic States 

360. Southern States 

361. Central States 

362. Western States 
398. Canada . 

434. The Hemispheres . 

435. Mercator Chart of World 



Facing 96 
173 

222 
251 
301 
353 
370 
415 
461 
486 
486 
486 
486 
486 
486 
486 
517 
542 
542 



RELIEF MAPS 



76. 


South America 








... 97 


109. 


Europe .... 








Facing 149 


243. 


Asia . ... 








355 


298. 


Africa .... 








. 416 


339. 


Australia 








. 462 


363. 


North America 








.486 


366. 


United States 








. 490 



XV 111 



LIST OF MAPS 



CITY MAPS 



FIGURE 

136. London and Liverpool 

162. Paris and Vicinity 

177. Stockholm 

196. Berlin and Vicinity 

225. Vienna and Vicinity 

233. Constantinople and Vicinity 

313. Cairo and Vicinity 



PAGE 

193 

232 
259 
295 
334 
343 
432 



MAPS ILLUSTRATING CLIMATE 



25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 



39. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
299. 
341. 
341. 
367. 



States 



Wind Belts of the Earth . 

Winds and Rainfall of South America 

Winds and Rainfall of Africa . 

Winds and Rainfall of Australia 

Rainfall of the Earth 

Winds and Rainfall of Western United 

Shifting of Wind and Rain Belts 

Shifting of Wind and Rain Belts 

Summer Monsoons of India . 

Winter Monsoons of India . 

A Cyclonic Storm, Europe . 

Isothermal Chart of the World for January 

Isothermal Chart of the World for July 

Ocean Currents of the World . 

Ocean Currents of the North Atlantic 

Isotherms of Europe for July . 

Isotherms of Europe for January 

Rainfall of Europe .... 

Isotherms of British Isles for July . 

Isotherms of British Isles for January 

Rainfall of British Isles . 

Vegetation Zones of Africa 

Isotherms of Southeastern Australia, January 

Isotherms of Southeastern Australia, July 

Rainfall of United States ..... 



27 
30 
30 
31 
32 
33 
35 
35 
36 



42 
43 

47 
49 
158 
159 
163 
175 
176 
177 
418 
464 
464 
492 



LIST OF MAPS 



XIX 



PRODUCT MAPS 

FIGURE PAGE 

113. Coal Fields of Europe ....... 154 

131. Coal Fields of British Isles 184 

368. Principal Forest Regions of the United States . . 493 

369. Fishing Grounds near North America .... 494 

371. Principal Corn-raising Districts of the United States 496 

372. Principal Oat-raising Districts of the United States . 496 
374. Principal Wheat-raising Districts of the United States 497 
381. Principal Cotton-raising Districts of the United States 501 

384. Principal Tobacco-raising Districts of the United States 503 

385. Principal Fruit-raising Districts of the United States 503 

386. Coal Fields of the United States ..... 504 

389. Principal Iron, Copper, Oil, and Gas Districts of the 

United States ......... 506 

390. Principal Gold and Silver Regions of the United States 508 

404. World Map for Corn 524 

405. World Map for Wheat 525 

407. World Map for Cotton 526 

409. World Map for Sheep and Cattle ..... 526 

411. World Map for Coal 527 

413. World Map for Iron 528 

415. World Map for Silver 529 

417. World Map for Gold 530 

419. World Map for Petroleum and Rubber .... 531 

420. Manufacturing Districts of the World .... 531 

425. World Map for Coffee ....... 534 

427. World Map for Beet and Cane Sugar .... 534 

429. World Map for Raw Silk 535 

431. World Map for Tea 536 

432. World Map for Rice 536 



DENSITY OF POPULATION MAPS 



85. South America . . . . . . . . .111 

120. Europe 169 

253. Asia 365 

304. Africa 423 



XX 



LIST OF MAPS 



FIGURE PAGE 

347. Australia 470 

393. Distribution of Cities and Towns in the United States 510 



597. North America 



514 



RAILWAY, COMMERCIAL ROUTES, AND 
COLONY MAPS 



119. Railways of Europe 108 

(Railways of South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia on colored Politi- 
cal Maps.) 

142. The British Empire 202 

193. 

394. 
395. 
396. 
433. 



Colonies of Germany, United States, France, and The 
Netherlands ......... 290 



Railways of North America 
Railways of Eastern United States . 
Navigable Rivers of the United States 
Leading Transportation Routes of the YY 



Facing 511 

512 

. 513 

. 538 



OTHER MAPS 



3. Land and Water Hemispheres . . . . . 

5. Girdle of Mountains and Volcanoes in the Pacific 

22. Standard Time Felts of the United States 

23. The Meaning of Mercator Maps 
60. Distribution of Races of Mankind 
74. Distribution of Religions 

114. The Great Ice Sheet of Europe 

146. The Netherlands .... 

364. The Great Ice Sheet of the United States 

365. The Fall Line of Eastern United States 

399. The Countries of Central America . 

400. The West Indies ...... 



4 
6 

22 

23 

77 

94 

155 

208 

487 

489 

520 

522 



EUROPE AND OTHER CONTINENTS 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



Paet I 
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



o^K<i 



I. THE EARTH AS A PLANET 

Stars and Planets. — As we look into the heavens at 
night, thousands of stars meet our gaze, and by the help 
of powerful telescopes many more thousands have been 
discovered. The stars are fiery hot bodies like the sun, 
but so far away that they appear only as twinkling lights. 

Some impression of the immensity of the universe is gained 
when we reflect that some of the stars are so distant that their 
light, which is now reaching our eyes, may have started toward 
us as long ago as the time of Christ. Yet light travels so rap- 
idly that it takes less than nine minutes for it to pass over the 
93,000,000 miles that separate us from the sun. 

Some of the brightest of the heavenly bodies have no 
light of their own, but, like the moon, merely reflect 
light that falls upon them from the sun. They do not 
remain in one part of the heavens, as the true stars do, 
but slowly change their position. For this reason they 
were long ago called planets, which means wanderers. 

The planets are much nearer to us than the myriads of 
stars ; in fact, they are members of the solar family to 

B 1 



2 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

which the earth belongs. The sun is the centre of this 
family, or solar system, and supplies the members of it 
with light and heat. The eight large planets, named in 
the order of their distance from the sun, are Mercury, 
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. 



Neptune 



/"""N Earth Mars 



Venus Mercury 




Fig. 1. 



The circles at the top show the relative size of the planets ; the lower figure 
shows their relative distances from the sun. 



The two most distant of the planets cannot be seen without a 
telescope ; but the others are easily seen, and Venus is the most 
brilliant object in the heavens, after the sun and moon. It 
appears either as the Evening Star or Morning Star. Find 
some of the planets in the sky. 

There is a very close resemblance among the members of 



THE EARTH AS A PLANET 6 

this solar family. All are spherical in form, and each one, whose 
movements are known, rotates upon an axis while revolving 
about the sun ; but the periods required to complete their revolu- 
tions vary greatly with different planets. For example, Mer- 
cury, about 36,000,000 miles from the sun, takes less than three 
months for one journey around it; while Neptune, about 
2,700,000,000 miles distant, requires 165 years for a single 
revolution. How far is the earth from the sun, and how long 
does it take for one revolution ? 

Ocean Basins and Continents. — It is believed that all 
of the planets were once hot bodies like the sun and the 



Eastern 
United States 



Overflowed 
margin of the 
Continent 



Sea LeveL 




Fig. 2. 

To illustrate the fact that the oceans fill the great depressions in the earth's 
crust that lie between the continent upfolds. 



stars. The larger planets have not cooled as much as the 
earth, and some of them seem still to be hot. For exam- 
ple, the atmosphere of Jupiter is always full of clouds, 
as if the heat of the planet caused the ocean water to 
rise as steam. On the other hand, Mercury, Mars, Venus, 
and the Earth (Fig. 1), being so much smaller, have of 
course cooled more quickly. They have therefore be- 
come solid, and a cold " crust " of minerals and rocks has 
formed around the still heated interior. 

You will recall that, as the interior of the earth con- 
tinues to cool and contract, the crust settles upon it and 
is thus thrown into folds and wrinkles. It is these ffreat 



4 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

upfolds that form the continents, while the downfolds 
form the ocean basins. 

Water fills the extensive, depressed portions of the 
earth's surface, and even overflows the lower margin of the 
elevated areas (Fig. 2). Thus only about one-fourth of 
the earth's surface rises above the water. In which hemi- 
sphere is most of the land? (Fig. 3.) In which is most 
of the water ? Locate the five oceans on a globe. 1 




Fig. 3. 
The land and water hemispheres. 

While a broad ocean encircles the south polar region, land 
surrounds the north pole, extending southward in two great 
masses that are almost united at Bering Strait. The smaller 
of these, in the western hemisphere, includes North and South 
America, the New World ; while the much larger Old World 
includes the great continents of Eurasia and Africa. South 
of Asia, in the southern hemisphere, is Australia, also classed 
as a continent. Find each of these on a globe. 

Compare the continents with each other and with the United 
States in size (see Tables just before Index). Three are tri- 

1 See also the two maps inserted just before the list of Books of Refer- 
ence. 



THE EARTH AS A PLANET 



angular in shape with the apex of the triangle pointing south- 
ward, while Eurasia has its greatest extent from east to west. 
Compare them as to their regularity of outline. Tell what 
bodies of water separate each continent from the others. 

Mountains and Volcanoes. — As the heated interior of 
the earth has contracted, it has not only thrown the sur- 
face into a -few 
broad folds, 
forming conti- 
nents and ocean 
basins, but here 
and there the 
crust has been 
crumpled into 
narrower folds, 
forming moun- 
tain ranges. Dur- 
ing the growth 
of mountains the 
rocks are both 

folded and broken. Through the cracks thus formed 
melted rock sometimes rises in such quantities as to build 
lofty peaks or cones known as volcanoes (Fig. 4). From 
Cape Horn to Alaska there is an almost unbroken series 
of mountain systems, among whose peaks are many vol- 
canoes, some of which are still in action. 




Fig. 4. 

Mount St. Helens, a volcanic cone near Portland, 
Oregon (copyrighted, 1899, by H. A. Hale). 



Name the western ranges of North and South America, and 
such volcanoes of North America as you remember. Some of 
these mountain ranges are still rising, especially in South 
America, where within the last century the land in some places 
has been uplifted several feet. This rising of the land has 



6 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



been accompanied by destructive earthquake shocks caused by 
the slipping of the rocks as they moved one upon another. 

A great girdle of mountains and volcanoes borders the 
Pacific (Fig. 5), reaching from Cape Horn to Alaska, and 
thence to the Kurile Islands by the way of the Aleutian chain. 
It then continues southward along the Japanese Islands 
to the Philippines and the East Indies, all of which are 







Fig. 5. 

The girdle of mountains and volcanoes encircling the Pacific Ocean. Extinct 
volcanoes shown by circles, others by black dots. 



mountainous islands where elevation is still in progress and 
where active volcanoes abound. 

There are other mountain ranges and associated pla- 
teaus on each of the continents to be studied about later. 
Just now it is important to speak of but one other series 
of mountain folds, and these extend nearly east and west, 
while the mountains of the girdle just mentioned reach for 
the most part in a north and south direction. The east 



THE EARTH AS A PLANET 7 

and west series includes the mountain systems of Furasia, 
among 1 which are the lofty ranges of central and southern 
Asia. These ranges reach their greatest elevation in the 
Himalayas on the southern border of the plateau of Tibet. 
Here are the loftiest mountains of the world. Other 
mountain chains of this series are situated much farther 
west, among the highest being the Caucasus, Alps, and 
Pyrenees in Europe. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is a star? — (2) Give some idea 
of the distance of the stars from us. (3) What is a planet ? (4) Name 
the eight planets. (5) Mention some points of similarity among them. 
(6) Of difference. (7) How has the earth's crust been formed, with 
its continents and ocean basins? (8) What is the extent and position 
of the water surf ace. (9) Describe each of the five oceans. (10) Sim- 
ilarly describe the land surface. (11) Tell about the girdle of moun- 
tains and volcanoes which encircles the Pacific. (12) Name and locate 
some of the mountain systems which extend east and west. 

Suggestions. — (1) Find the north star. (2) Find some of the 
constellations. (The Great Dipper and Cassiopeia are always in sight 
at the north, and the Pleiades and Orion may be seen in the east on 
autumn evenings.) (3) Write out the observations you have made 
about the moon. (4) Make a careful sketch of Venus or Jupiter and the 
stars near them. After some days or weeks make a similar drawing and 
compare the two. (5) What might be some of the effects if the earth's 
revolution about the sun required a much longer period? (6) What 
changes might result if there were less water in the ocean depressions? 
(Think of effects on size of continents ; on commerce ; on climate; and 
on land adapted to agriculture.) (7) State some of the changes that 
would result if there were enough water to raise the level of the sea a 
thousand feet. (8) Draw a map of the Pacific Ocean, and with colored 
pencil, or ink, draw lines to show the surrounding mountain ranges of 
the continents and the island chains (Fig. 5). 

Books of Reference for each Section are Listed at the 
End of the Book. 



II. MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH AND THEIR 
RESULTS 

Daily Motion. — Like the other planets the earth is 
rapidly rotating, that is, turning on one of its diame- 
ters, called the axis. When we glance out of the window 
of a moving car, the objects we pass appear to be mov- 
ing in the direction opposite to that in which we are 
travelling. It seems as though we were standing still. 
In a similar way the rotation of the earth makes the sun 
appear to rise and set, and for a long time people believed 
that it was the sun that moved, and not the earth. 

In what direction must the earth rotate, since the sun ap- 
pears to move from east to west ? The period of time required 
for one rotation is called a clay. Since the circumference of 
the earth at the equator is about twenty-five thousand miles, 
how far does a point on the equator move in an hour ? In a 
minute ? 

By rotating a globe or an apple in the sunlight show how 
day and night are caused on the earth. Hold the sphere still ; 
what would be true on opposite sides of the earth if it did not 
rotate at all ? What might be the effect upon life on the earth 
if the same side were always toward the sun ? 

Yearly Motion. — While the earth makes one complete 
rotation in a day, it requires a whole year to make one jour- 
ney, or revolution, around the sun. As the earth travels 
along its path, the stars on one side of the sun are visible 
on July evenings, and quite different stars and constella- 
tions on January evenings. 



MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 



But this change in the appearance of stars is much 
less noticeable than the changes in the seasons, which are 
also due ill part 

c 



A 




to the earth's 

revolution around 

the sun. If one 

part of our planet, 

as for instance the 

north pole, or the 

equator, or the 

south pole, were 

always turned 

toward the sun, 

revolution would 

not cause changes 

of season. As a 

matter of fact, however, the portion of the earth which is 

turned toward the 
sun is continually 
chano-ino-. 

Place an ink 
bottle upon your 
desk. Then rest 
the blunt end of 
your pencil upon 
the table a few 
inches to the left 
of the bottle, with 
the pointed end 
inclined from you 

(Fig. 6). Notice that neither end of the pencil is now 

inclined toward or away from the bottle. 




10 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 8. 



Now keeping the pointed end inclined from you, 
always in the same direction, slowly move the pencil 

away from you 

L x \ in a circle around 

the bottle. When 
the side farthest 
from you is 
reached, the blunt 
end of the pencil 
is toward the bot- 
tle, while the 
point is turned 
away (Fig. 7). 
On reaching the 
right side, the two 
ends are again so 
placed that neither is turned from the bottle (Fig. 8) ; 
but on arriving 
at the side near- 
est to you, the 
pencil point is 
inclined toward 
the bottle, while 
the blunt end is 
turned away 
(Fig. 9). 

These p o s i- 
tions of the pen- 
cil well illustrate 
those of the FlG - 9 - 

earth's axis with relation to the sun. The bottle 
represents the sun; the circular path followed by the 



"N 




MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 11 

pencil represents the earth's orbit or the slightly elliptical 
path taken by the earth in its journey about the sun ; and 
the pencil stands for the earth's axis. The pencil, instead 
of being perpendicular to the surface of the desk, was 
somewhat inclined ; and the earth's axis is also inclined 
to the plane through which the earth revolves, or the plane 
of the orbit (Fig. 10). The axis of the earth remains in 
this one position, pointing toward the north star. 

Results of the Earth's Revolution and Inclination of its 
Axis. — This fact of the unchanging inclination of its 



Fig. 10. 

To illustrate the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit. 

axis, as the earth revolves about the sun, may seem a 
small thing in itself ; but it is really of such momentous 
importance that hundreds of our customs are regulated by 
it. It determines the time when lamps shall be lighted, 
when grain shall be planted and harvested, and when the 
navigation of rivers and lakes shall open and close in cold 
climates. It also greatly influences the kind of clothing 
that we wear and the sports that we enjoy. Name some 
other of its influences. It does all this by continually 
changing the length of our day and the inclination at 
which the sun's rays reach the earth's surface. 

Figure 11, showing the position of the earth on Sep- 
tember 23, corresponds to the first position of the pencil 
(Fig. 6). Although the axis is inclined, neither pole is 



12 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



turned from the sun, and the light therefore extends from 
pole to pole. Then the sun's rays are vertical at the 

equator, and the days 
and nights are equal 
over all the earth. 
This time is called 
the autumnal equinox 
(the latter from two 
words meaning equal 
and nigM). 

Figure 12 repre- 
sents the earth in 
the second position 




Fig. 11. 

Position of the earth September 23. Notice that 
the vertical rays (heavy line in middle) are at 
the equator. Compare with Figure 6. 



of the pencil, or that of December 21, when the earth's 
revolution has brought the south polar region toward the 
sun and into the light, while the north polar region is 
shrouded in dark- 
ness. The vertical 
rays have now passed 
south to the Tropic 
of Capricorn. Ex- 
amine a globe to see 
what countries are 
crossed by this line. 
Here the sun seems 
to turn and move 
northward, and for 
that reason this parallel is called a tropic (from a word 
meaning to tur)i). 

When the sun is vertical over the Tropic of Capricorn, it is 
summer for lands south of this tropic, and the people of these 
lands have their longest day. Indeed, the south pole itself has 




Ftg. 12. 

Position of the earth December 21. Where are 
the vertical rays now ? What about the north 
pole ? Compare with Figure 7. 



MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 



13 



been constantly in the sunlight for three months, and on 
December 21 the entire region within the Antarctic Circle 
has sunlight for the full twenty-four hours. On the other 
hand, we whose homes are in the northern hemisphere have 
our shortest day at this date, and winter is upon us. The 
north pole has been entirely without sunlight for three months, 
and the whole area within the Arctic Circle is in darkness 
even at midday. What is the condition of Europe then ? 

Figure 13 shows the third position, or that of March 
21, when the poles 
are again turned 
neither toward nor 
away from the sun. 
The equator is once 
more under the verti- 
cal rays of the sun, 
and the days and 
nights are equal the 
world over. This 
period, called the ver- 
nal equinox, is the commencement of our spring. 

this date our 




Fig. K 



Position of the earth March 21. Where are the 
rays vertical ? Compare with Figure 8. 



After 
days 
gradually lengthen un- 
til, on June 21, the 
continued revolution of 
the earth has brought 
it into the fourth posi- 
tion (Fig. 9). The 
sun's rays are then 
"vertical over the Tropic 
of Cancer (Fig. 11), 
and at this date we 
have our longest day, and summer is upon us. 




Fig. 14. 

Position of the earth June 21. 
Figure 9. 



Compare with 



14 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



What countries of the northern continents are then warmed 
by the vertical rajs of the sun ? (See a globe or map.) The 




Fig. 15. 
To illustrate the revolution of the earth around the sun. The shaded portion 
represents night. The end of the axis around which the earth rotates is the 
point where the lines come together (the north pole). At what date is 
this pole turned toward the sun ? Away from it ? Neither toward nor 
away from i t ? What portions of the earth do the sun's rays reach at each 
of these times ? 

Arctic region is in the midst of its longest day and summer, 
while the Antarctic is wrapped in the darkness of its long 
winter night. Why ? In what direction from us does the 
sun rise and set at this time ? 



MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 



15 



After this the sun again seems to turn, this time 
moving southward. Year after year, as the earth revolves 
around the sun, exactly these changes take place. 

Boundaries of the Zones. — The amount of inclination 
of the earth's axis has not been stated, but you have no 
doubt discovered 
that that is a mat- 
ter of very great 
importance. 

In considering 
the amount, it is 
necessary to speak 
of angles. Angles 
may be measured 
by the use of cir- 
cles. A right angle, 
for instance, is one 
that includes one- 
fourth of a circle 
between its sides 
(Fig. 16). It is 
customary to di- 
vide circles into 
parts, or degrees 
(indicated by the sign °), the number chosen being 360, a num- 
ber which is exactly divisible by numerous other numbers, as 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, etc. Since a right angle includes one- 
fourth of a circle, it contains one-fourth of 360°, or 90° ; and 
an angle that is one-half as large as a right angle contains 45°. 
By drawing lines from the centre of a circle to its circumference, 
construct an angle of 90° ; and others of 120°, 45°, and 22f ° 



/ Right 




I Angle 


/ 45° \ 


1 q0 ° 


/ Angle \ 


I Right 


Right J 


\ Angle 


Angle J 


\ *o m 


VO° / 



Fig. 16. 
To illustrate the meaning of angles. 



The angle in Figure 17 is 23|-°, and shows just 
how far the pencil (Figs. 6-9) should be inclined. Hold 



16 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



your pencil perpendicular to the top of the table; now tilt 
it about 23|-°. That is the position of the earth's axis 
with reference to the plane of its 
orbit, and year after year it remains 
at that angle. 

This is the reason why the tropics 
and polar circles are situated just where 
they are. On June 21, when the north 
pole is turned toward the sun, the 
vertical rays fall 23|° north of the 
equator, because the axis is inclined 
On that account the 
Tropic of Cancer lies 23|° north of 
At this date, also, the sunlight reaches the 

fforth Pole 




Fig. 17. 

An angle of 23£° drawn in that amount 
a right angle. 



the equator 
same number of de- 
grees beyond the 
north pole, and there- 
fore the Arctic Circle 
is located 23 1 - from 
the pole. 

On December 21 
the earth's revolution 
has caused the north 
pole to turn away 
from the sun, and 
the vertical rays then 
fall 23|° south of the 



equator, while the 
sunlight reaches the 
same distance beyond 
the south pole. Thus 
the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle are 







ctic C/> 



. 0i 



^zone . 

South Pole 

Fig. 18. 

A map of the zones. Make a drawins 
to this. 



similar 



MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH 17 

located. It is plain, therefore, that the inclination of the 
earth's axis determines the exact boundaries of the zones. 

Show each zone on a globe and point out its boundaries (Fig. 
18). What is the width of each in degrees? Find the ap- 
proximate width in miles. (Each of these degrees is about 
sixty-nine miles.) What is the direction of the sun's rays in 
each zone, and the resulting temperature ? Should you expect 
to find a very different temperature in moving across the 
boundary line between two neighboring zones ? Why ? 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the earth's axis? (2) What 
was formerly believed about the earth's movement? (3) In what 
direction does the earth rotate ? (4) What changes in the stars result 
from the earth's revolution ? (5) What other effect of revolution is 
noticeable? (6) With a pencil, illustrate the movement of the 
earth around the sun (Figs. 6-9). (7) What is the earth's orbit? 
(8) What is the plane of the earth's orbit? (9) How are we affected 
by these positions of the earth? (10) Describe the position of the 
earth, the length of day, etc., on September 23. (11) On Decem- 
ber 21. (12) March 21. (13) June 21. (14) How may angles be 
measured? (15) Give examples. (16) How much is the axis of the 
earth inclined ? (17) How does this inclination of the earth's axis 
serve to fix the boundaries of the zones? 

Suggestions. — (1) Find out why the earth is slightly flattened at 
the poles. (2) What might be some of the effects if each rotation 
lasted longer than twenty-four hours ? (3) If much less ? (4) At 
what time of day does your shadow always point directly north? 
(5) Notice how your shadow changes with the season in early morn- 
ing. At noon. In the evening. (6) Tell about the direction and 
length of a man's shadow at noon on December 21st, at various points 
between the poles. (7) On June 21. (8) On September 23. (9) How 
long is our longest night? Our shortest? (10) Make a sketch of the 
eastern and western horizons as seen from your home. On it locate 
the position of the rising and setting sun at different times of year. 

(11) Which zone experiences the slightest change of seasons? Why? 

(12) What advantages and disadvantages do you see in that fact for 
people living there ? (13) Is it once or twice each year that the verti- 
cal rays of the sun fall upon any one place in the Torrid Zone? 
(14) What might be the effect of a greater inclination of the earth's 
axis ? Of a less inclination ? 



III. MAPS. (LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE) 



globe in east 



Horth p. 



To aid in locating cities, lakes, and other points on the 
earth's surface two sets of circles are used, one extending 
east and west, the other north and south. When maps of 
any part of the earth's surface are made, these circles are 
drawn on them. In a study of the earth tlie}^ are of 
much the same advantage as the names and numbers 
of streets when one is finding his way in a large city. 
Latitude. — The circles which are extended around the 
and west directions are called circles of 
latitude (Eig. 19). The 
two tropics and the Arctic 
and Antarctic circles are 
examples, and there are 
many others. In order 
that they may be of use 
they must be numbered. 
Accordingly, the equator, 
or the circle which is 
midway between the poles, 
is called 0° latitude. All 
circles north of this, that is 
all in the northern hemi- 
The globe, showing the two hemispheres sphere, are said to be ill 
and some of the circles of latitude. . , 

north latitude ; all south 
of it, or in the southern hemisphere, are in south latitude. 
Since these circles are parallel to each other, they are 
often called parallels of latitude. 

18 




ZyZO'S. Lat. 
/23h"s. Lat. 



*o, 



/.!■■ 



°s ' 



/ffl'S. Lat. 
'-^60'S. Lat. 



ie tt. 

Fig. 19. 



MAPS. (LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE} 19 

It has been said (p. 15) that a circle may be divided 
into 360 parts, or degrees. One-fourth of 360 is 90 ; and 
since the distance from the equator to either pole is one- 
fourth of that around the earth, there are just 90° from 
the equator to either pole. Accordingly the circles of lati- 
tude in each hemisphere are numbered from 0° at the 
equator to 90° at the poles. Since the circumference of 
the earth is about 25,000 miles, dividing that by 360 
makes the length of each degree of latitude about 69 
miles. Therefore latitude is merely distance from the 
equator. 

What cities in the United States are near the fortieth 
parallel of north latitude? What is the latitude of Key 
West Y Of New York ? Of Madrid in Spain ? Of Peking ? 
Of Kimberley in South Africa ? Of the Tropic of Cancer ? Of 
the Tropic of Capricorn ? Of the Arctic Circle ? Of the 
Antarctic Circle ? 

Longitude. — It is evident that the distance of any place 
north or south of the equator can be easily found by the 
use of circles of latitude. But of course there must be 
some means of locating points in east and west directions 
also. This is made possible by the use of meridians, or 
circles extending northward and southward across the 
equator. 

Notice on Figure 21 how the meridians converge toward 
the poles, coming nearer and nearer together until they 
finally reach the poles. Since they meet at these two 
points, though spreading far apart at the equator, it is plain 
that they cannot be parallel (Fig. 20). Degrees of longi- 
tude, therefore, are not of the same length in all places. 
At the equator, which is 25,000 miles in length, each of 
the 360° is about 69 miles ; but where the meridians cross 



20 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



the smaller Arctic Circle, the length of a degree of longi- 
tude is much less. 

To number the circles of longitude, a prime or zero 
meridian must be selected from which to commence. 
The one most commonly chosen for this purpose is that 
passing through Greenwich near London. All circles 
of lonsritude east of this meridian are numbered as east 

longitude (E. Long.) until 
the opposite side of the 
earth, or meridian 180°, 
is reached (Fig. 21). All 
west of the Greenwich 
g meridian, as far as 180°, 
are numbered as west 
longitude (W. Long.). 



W& 




The 180th meridian is a 
continuation, on the other 
side of the earth, of the 
Greenwich or zero meridian, 



*°S.POLE s °° 

Fig. 20. 

The earth, cut in halves alona: the Green- 
wich meridian, showing some of the and the two together make a 
meridians. complete circle. Hence we 

may speak of circles of 
longitude as well as circles of latitude. Why must the 
meridian marked 180° E. Long, be the same as the one marked 
180° W. Long.? Which meridian passes near New York ? Den- 
ver ? Vienna ? Jerusalem ? 

Find the latitude and longitude of Chicago. Of New 
Orleans. St. Petersburg. Eome. Peking. 

If a large map is made of a small part of the earth, the 
circles of latitude and longitude are too far apart to be of much 
use. Therefore, it is customary to divide each degree into 
sixty parts called minutes, just as each hour is divided into 
sixty parts. Each minute of latitude and longitude is divided 
into sixty parts called seconds, as each minute of time is divided 



MAPS. {LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE) 



21 





into sixty seconds. The sign for a degree is ° ; for a minute ' ; 
for a second ". Thus 60 degrees, 40 minutes, and 20 seconds 
north latitude is marked 60° 40' 20" 1ST. Lat. Examine some 
map of a small section to find these signs. 

Longitude and Time. — The meridians are of use in 
determining time also. When it is noon at one point on 
a meridian it is noon at 
all other places along the 
same meridian. For ex- 
ample, when it is noon at 
your home, it is midday 
at all other places which 
are exactly north or south 
of you. Just one twenty- 
fourth of the distance 
around the world to your 
east, that is 15° east of 
yon, it is exactly one hour 
later. What is true on 
your west ? 

You will recall that the 
United States is divided 
into belts of Standard 
Time (Fig. 22), each belt having the time of its central 
meridian. These central meridians are taken 15° apart, 
so that the difference in time between adjoining belts is 
exactly one hour. 

In order that the system may accord with that of other 
parts of the world, the time of the Greenwich meridian is 
taken as the basis. Thus the whole world, like the United 
States, may be divided into standard time belts, with a 
change of an hour at every fifteenth meridian. 



\%r 



n 9>tucj e £ aster " 

Fig. 21. 
To show how the meridians converge at the 
pole. Trace the 0° meridian to the op- 
posite side of the glohe. What is it num- 
bered there ? Trace some of the others. 



99 



GENERAL GEOGEA PH Y 



Maps of the World. — When we wish to represent the 
earth accurately we must use a globe ; but this involves 
so many inconveniences that geographers have invented 
other kinds of maps. However, the fact that the earth 
is a sphere makes it impossible to draw flat maps of large 
sections without some distortion. You can understand 
the difficulty if you try to flatten the half of a hollow 




sxa.nda.rd time in the united states. 

Fig. 22. 

Standard time belts of the United States. Find the central meridian for each 
time belt. Why are the actual boundaries of these belts so irregular? 



rubber ball upon a table. You could not possibly do this 
without stretching it out of shape along the edges. 

A small part of the earth is so nearly flat that it may be 
represented on a map without distortion ; but when half 
of the whole earth is to be shown there is much distor- 
tion. For example, in a map of the hemispheres (Fig. 20) 
you can easily see that the meridian in the centre is 
shorter than those on the outside ; but on a globe all 
the meridians are of the same length, since all reach from 



MAPS. {LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE) 



23 



the equator to the poles. On such a map, therefore, lands 
at the edge must be represented as longer from north to 
south than those near the central meridian. 

A map of the whole earth, like Figure 25, is called a 




I h"SH° 130 i2ono~Too — 90 — BO _ fo~ToTH? I 7 I 





Fig. 23. 



To illustrate the distortion on Mercator maps. A shows a globe with the 
meridians converging at the pole. B shows three of these meridians 
coming to a point at the north pole, as they do on a globe. For a Mer- 
cator map these meridians are spread apart and made parallel as they 
would be on a cylinder (a cylinder is drawn around the globe in A) rolled 
out flat, as in C. This, of course, distorts the lands, making them too 
broad in the north. Compare A, B, and C, to understand that this is so. 
Notice, also, that the parallels of latitude are drawn farther apart toward 
the north. 



Mercator map, after the man who first made one. It is 
drawn as though the lands and waters near the poles 
were stretched out until the meridians are parallel. At 
the same time all the parallels of latitude are made as 
long as the equator. (See Fig. 23.) 

In a Mercator map, the farther you go from' the equator, the 
more the lands are distorted. Greenland, for instance, and 



24 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

northern North America and Eurasia, are greatly exaggerated 
in breadth. Also the Arctic Ocean looks like a long extent of 
water, instead of a great gulf opening from the Atlantic, which 
it really is. On such a "map the poles themselves cannot be 
shown at all. 

There are other ways of representing a part or all of the 
earth. For example, see Figures 3 and 29. Compare the differ- 
ent maps of this book to see how the form of continents varies 
in those drawn after different plans. From these statements 
you can see how very important it is to use a globe frequently, 
in order to keep in mind the real shape of the continents. 1 

Review Questions. — (1) By what lines are places on the 
earth's surface accurately located? (2) How is latitude indicated 
on maps ? What is latitude ? (3) What is the starting point for 
measuring it ? (4) What is the length of a degree of latitude ? How 
is it determined ? (5) How is longitude indicated ? What is longi- 
tude ? (6) What is the starting point for measuring it ? (7) What 
is the length of a degree of longitude at the equator? Why? 
(8) How are the meridians numbered? (9) What subdivisions of 
degrees are there? Why are they necessary? (10) How does the 
time change in going eastward? Westward? (11) Tell about 
Standard Time in the United States. (12) Why is it difficult to make 
accurate maps of large parts of the earth? (13) In what way are 
hemisphere maps distorted ? (14) Mercator maps? 

Suggestions. — (1) Compare the latitude of the most southern 
point in the United States with the most southern point in Europe. 
(2) Compare the longitude of eastern United States with that of 
western South America. (3) Find some places that have nearly the 
same latitude as your home. The same longitude. (4) Ask a sur- 
veyor to tell you the exact latitude and longitude of the city hall, or 
your town centre. (5) Show on a globe or map where a ship would 
be in the Atlantic when in zero latitude and longitude. (6) What 
city is about 45° N. Lat. and 93° W. Long. ? (7) What islands are 
nearly 14° N. Lat. and 145° E. Long. ? (8) Since the sun's rays travel 
over 15° of longitude in an hour of time, how many minutes of longi- 
tude do they travel over in one minute of time? 

1 Small globes are so cheap that every school should have at least one. 



IV. WIND AND RAIN BELTS 

One great lesson of geography is that all nature is 
bound together. Each force influences others, and all of 
the forces together affect not only the plants and animals 
of the earth, but the life of man himself. For example, 
it is because of the earth's form and motions that the sun's 
heat is distributed in belts which change with the seasons. 
In turn these different zones of heat have determined the 
great belts of winds and the distribution of rainfall. If 
we would clearly understand life conditions upon the differ- 
ent continents, we must know about these belts of wind 
and rain. 

Winds 

Cause of Winds. — The principal cause of winds is illus- 
trated every time a fire is kindled. The flame warms the 
air and causes it to expand and grow lighter. This lighter 
air is then forced to rise by the pressure of the colder, 
heavier air round about, which pushes in underneath, and, 
by crowding the warm air upward, produces a draught. 
So long as the fire burns, this movement is kept up. 

The winds of the globe are produced in a similar 
manner. Whenever the air is cooler in one place than in 
neighboring regions, the cool, heavy air settles down, flows 
beneath the warmer air and slowly raises it. Then the 
warm air, which has been lifted, flows out and away at a 
higher altitude. Thus, either in the case of a gentle 
breeze or of a violent hurricane, we may think of four 

25 



26 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

directions of movement of the air. Illustrate them by a 
drawing. 

The Wind Belts So long as the vertical rays of the 

sun produce a heated belt near the equator, with cooler 
air to the north and south where the rays are slanting, 
there must be an extensive system of winds on the earth. 
From the cooler regions on the two sides, the air flows 
steadily toward the central part of the heated belt, pro- 
ducing the trade winds (Figs. 2-1 and 25). As the trade 
winds approach the central line of the heated belt, or the 



e t s ; 



\t, 









Fig. 24. 
Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement of the greater winds of the earth. 

heat equator, they travel more slowly. Then, owing to 
expansion from heat, and to pressure from the colder air 
behind, the air rises over a broad area to a great height. 
In this belt of rising air, whatever winds are felt are light 
and changeable, and calms often prevail ; hence the name 
belt of calms. 

At an elevation of several thousand feet this air flows 
outward, above the trade winds, toward the poles, produc- 
ing the anti-trades (Fig. 24). About a third of the distance 
to the poles, near latitude 30°, much of the air of the anti- 
trades settles to the earth again, near the place where the 



WIND AND BAIN BELTS 



27 




28 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

trade winds begin. Since the movement of the air here is 
downward, there can of course be little wind in this belt, 
which is known as the horse latitudes (Figs. 24 and 25). 

If the earth did not rotate, the trades and antitrades 
would no doubt follow the meridians directly toward and 
away from the equator ; but rotation turns them from their 
course, to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the 
left in the southern. Thus the trade winds blow from 
the northeast and the southeast, while the anti-trades re- 
turn in the opposite directions at higher altitudes. 

Beyond the horse latitudes much of the air of the anti- 
trades flows on toward the poles as westerly winds, both 
high in the heavens and at the surface. Travelling on- 
ward, and coming into smaller and smaller space as the 
poles are approached, portions of the air continue to turn 
back toward the equator, while the remainder sweeps on 
as westerly winds. These are plainly felt in the United 
States, Canada, northern and central Europe, and over the 
great Southern Ocean ; and since the prevailing winds over 
these vast areas are from the west, these belts are known as 
the regions of prevailing ivesterliea (Fig. 25). 

The great wind and calm belts that encircle the earth 
are not always in exactly the same place. As the vertical 
rays of the sun move north and south from tropic to 
tropic, the zone of greatest heat must follow. So the belts 
of heat, and therefore of winds (Figs. 31 and 32), change 
their positions every year, shifting northward in summer 
and southward in winter. 

Raix 

Causes for Rain. — Knowing the wind belts that encir- 
cle the earth, we have a key to the principal rain belts ; 



WIND AND BAIN BELTS 29 

for winds are the water carriers of the earth. Water 
which is evaporated from the surface of the oceans and 
lands, is borne along in the air. As rain or snow it de- 
scends to the earth, abundantly along most coasts, and, 
usually, less liberally toward the interior of the continents. 

It is an important fact that there can be more water vapor 
in warm than in cool air. Therefore, whenever air is cooled 
sufficiently some of the water vapor which it bears is condensed. 
For example, vapor condenses on an ice-water pitcher because 
the air next it is cooled; and dew forms on grass when the air 
near the ground grows cool in the evening. In a like manner 
the vapor in our breath forms a little cloud when the breath in 
winter is cooled by mixture with the cold outside air. 

Rain is usually caused hj the cooling of air which is 
rising to higher levels and therefore expanding. When 
you open the valve of a bicycle tire, the outrushing air 
expands and grows cool ; and if you place your 
finger over the valve, you can feel the coolness. In a simi- 
lar way, when air rises above the surface of the earth it 
expands because there is less air above to press upon 
it. Then it grows cool ; and while doing so some of its 
vapor may be condensed to form clouds and raindrops. 
So whenever air from the damp oceans is rising over 
highlands, or whenever it is being raised over warm 
lands by the cooler air that pushes underneath, as in the 
belt of calms, rainfall naturally results. Briefly, — when 
air rises, it expands and cools; and then rain commonly 
folloivs. 

On the other hand, air that is settling grows warmer, 
and instead of giving up its vapor, it becomes dry and 
clear. This may again be illustrated by reference to the 



30 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 26. 

The rainy belt of calms of South America. Also the 
rainy east coasts and arid west coasts of the trade- 
wind belts. 



bicycle; for 
when air is 
pumped into the 
tire, the pump 
becomes warm 
as the air is com- 
pressed. In a 
like manner, air 
that is descend- 
ing toward the 
earth's surface 
is compressed 
and warmed be- 
cause of the 
increasing press- 
ure of the at- 



mosphere above. 
Since there can 
be more vapor 
in warm than in 
cool air, when 
air flows down 
the mountain 
slopes, or de- 
scends from 
high altitudes, 
as in the horse 
latitudes, clouds 
disappear and 
water is evapo- 
rated from the 



^^S^T^rfSPTJ 




[^Desert 
QHnjiigAt Rainfall 
[^Moderate " 
Heavy " 

Very Heavy •• 



■ I., n.-ml.- 'J.) F,a.-t r-..i.i 10 Orr-inwlcb .;.j 



Fig. 27. 

To illustrate the desert regions in the trade-wind and 
horse latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the 
heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the simi- 
lar belts on Figures 26, 28, and 30. 



WIND AND RAIN BELTS 



31 



As the morning advances and the heat grows 



ground. Briefly, — when air descends, it becomes denser and 
grows warmer ; then the sky is clear and the weather dry. 

Rain Belts. — The belt of calms is the most rainy belt 
of the earth (see Figs. 26, 27, and 28), because its 
hot, moisture-laden air is rising and cooling. After a 
clear night in that region, the sun usually rises in a cloud- 
less sky 
more intense, 
the damp air 
rises more rap- 
idly ; then small 
clouds appear 
and grow stead- 
ily until rain 
falls from them. 
Showers occur 
pr actically 
every day, in- 
creasing in the 
afternoon. 
When the sun 
sets and the air 
rises less active- 
ly, the clouds 
melt away, the 

stars appear, and the night is as clear as before. Our hot, 
muggy summer days, with heavy thunder showers in the 
afternoon and evening, illustrate the Aveather that is re- 
peated day after day in this belt of calms. 

Since the trade winds blow from cooler to warmer re- 
gions, and are therefore steadily growing warmer, their 
air tends to take up moisture rather than to drop it. The 




Fig. 28. 

Showing the heavy rainfall on the east-facing coast of 
Australia where the trade winds hlow. Notice also 
the arid interior and west coast. What is the condi- 
tion in the helt of calms ? What resemblance do you 
see to Figure 30 ? 



32 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




WIND AND RAIN BELTS 



33 



trades commence on the edge of the horse latitudes, where 
the descending air is also growing warmer and evaporating 
moisture. Thus both north and south of the rainy belt of 
calms there is a belt of little rainfall. Within these 
belts are the Sahara and most of the other desert 
regions of the earth. Point them out in Figures 26, 27, 




Fig. 30. 
The heavy rainfall where the prevailing westerlies blow over the rising coast. 
What is the condition farther east? What is the case where the trade 
winds blow ? Why ? 

and 28. Which of our Pacific Coast States is partly in 
the horse latitudes ? (Fig. 30.) 

Although the trades are drying winds, they obtain 
much vapor when they pass over the ocean. Therefore, 
wherever they blow from the ocean upon the rising 
slopes of the land, and especially upon mountain slopes, 



34 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

the moist air is cooled in rising, and abundant rain falls. 
Owing to this, the eastern or windward slopes of lands in 
the trade-wind belts have abundant rainfall, while the west- 
ern or leeward slopes, and the level interiors of continents, 
have little. Notice how clearly this is shown on the 
rainfall maps (Figs. 26 to 30). What sections in North 
America are thus affected ? 

In the broad belts of westerly winds, where the air rises 
over western coasts and islands, there is heavy rainfall. 
Find examples in Figures 28 and 30. On the other hand, 
slopes further east, in the interior, receive little rainfall 
from such winds and may even be deserts (Fig. 30). 
Name some of our states that are thus made arid. 

Migration of the Rainfall Belts. — Since the belts of heat, and 
therefore of winds, shift north and south each year (p. 28), many 
places have heavy rainfall at one season and dry air at another. 
In the torrid zone, for example, many places are within the 
belt of calms during the summer of their hemisphere, and are 
swept by the drying trades in their cooler months (Figs. 31 and 
32), thus dividing the year into wet and dry seasons. 

Monsoons. — We have thus far studied the great wind 
belts, and the rain belts that are dependent upon them. 
But in many regions these regular winds are greatly inter- 
fered with, and the rainfall must consequently be affected. 
One of the chief sources of such disturbance is the differ- 
ence between the temperature of land and water. 

Land warms and cools much more quickly than water. 
How hot the stones feel in summer compared with pond 
water ! And how quickly the ground freezes in autumn, 
while we are still waiting for skating on the ponds ! Like- 
wise in summer the continents are warmer than the 
oceans; in winter, cooler. 



WIND AND BAIN BELTS 



35 



Places in the interior of continents, far from the ocean, 
naturally have the greatest extremes of temperature. 
During the winter, the heavy air over the cold land settles 



120 If) 




Fig. 31. 
Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from December to February. 




Fig. 32. 

Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from June to August. Com- 
pare with Figure 31 to see how the belts of heavy rain have migrated as 
the wind belts have shifted with the change of season. 

down as drying air, and presses outward beneath the 
warmer air which lies over the oceans. This produces 
dry land winds. In summer, on the other hand, the air 



36 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



over the cool waters crowds in, raises the hot air of the 
continents, and produces ocean winds and rain. This is 
well illustrated in the southern part of Asia. Heated by 
the nearly vertical rays of the sun during the northern 
summer, the land there becomes warmer than the ocean. 
Toward this heated area the cooler air from over the 
Indian Ocean crowds in, causing ocean winds. 

This makes the summer winds opposite in direction to 
those of winter when the air is flowing out toward the 

warmer Indian 




Ocean from the 
cold lands of 
interior Asia 
(Fig. 34). 
Winds of this 
k i n d, w h i c h 
blow in opj30site 
directions in 
different sea- 
sons, are better 
developed in 
India than in 
any other part 
of the earth, and 
it was there that 
they received their name, monsoon winds. The term 
monsoon is now applied to inward-flowing summer winds 
and outward-flowing winter winds of any large mass of 
land. 

When the summer monsoons blow, the rainy season 
comes in India (Fig. 33). The rainfall is especially 
heavy where the moisture -laden air rises up the steep slope 



Fig. 33. 

The winds and rainfall daring the summer monsoon 
of India. 



WIND AND BAIN BELTS 



37 



of the Himalayas. In one part of this district, opposite the 
head of the Bay of Bengal, there is three times as much 
rain in July alone as falls in well-watered portions of the 
United States during the entire year. The winter mon- 
soon, on the other hand, is so dry that vegetation withers 
and the soil becomes parched and cracked, as in a desert 
(Fig. 34). 

While the north and south temperate zones are both called 
temperate, and have many features in common, they are quite 
unlike in some re- 
spects. In the 
northern hemi- 
sphere the broad 
continents become 
very hot in sum- 
mer and cold in 
winter. Since the 
temperature of the 
oceans remains 
more uniform, the 
regular winds are 
greatly interfered 
with, as by the 
monsoons. In the 
south temperate 
zone, on the other 
hand, there is 
little land and a vast expanse of ocean. The temperature 
of the water changes but little, and the narrow lands have 
their temperature largely determined by winds from the oceans. 
In the south temperate zone, therefore, there is little chance 
for winds between land and water to change the course of the 
westerly winds. Hence the west winds blow much more regu- 
larly there than in the northern hemisphere. Sailors call these 
inclement southern latitudes the " roaring forties," and shun 




Fig. 34. 

Map of the winter monsoon winds and rainfall of 
India. Compare with Figure 33, and notice espe- 
cially how very light the rainfall is in one season and 
how heavy it is in the opposite season. 



38 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



the stormy voyage around Cape Horn, where the west winds 
blow with wonderful steadiness. 

Cyclonic Storms. — There is another great source of dis- 
turbance of the regular winds, which we studied about in the 

preceding book. 
It was learned 
there that in 
northern United 
States and 
southern Can- 
ada there ap- 
pears, every few 
days, an area of 
loiv pressure 
where the air is 
lighter than that 
over the sur- 
rounding re- 
gion. Toward 
such a low-pres- 
sure area heavier 
air from the sur- 
Fig. 35. rounding coun- 

A cyclonic storm in Europe which came from the ocean, try hurries, even 
The heavy hlack line shows the course followed hy its f rnrn distances 
centre. Notice how the winds hlow toward the centre. 

of hundreds of 
miles. Thus winds are caused which on the south side 
blow from the south, on the east side from the east, etc. 

Owing to the earth's rotation, these winds are turned 
from their straight course and therefore move spirally 
toward the centre of low pressure. On nearing this centre 
the air rises, and as it does so the vapor condenses, forming 




WIND AND BAIN BELTS 39 

clouds and rain. Such great, whirling eddies of air, with 
their accompanying clouds and rain, are known as cyclonic 
storms. It is these that cause most of the rainfall of 
northeastern United States and Canada. 

We learned further, that instead of remaining in one 
place, the cyclonic storms steadily travel onward, usually 
beginning in the northwest or southwest and always pass- 
ing eastward. They generally follow the Great Lakes, 
pass down the St. Lawrence, and then out upon the ocean, 
which they frequently cross, even entering Europe. In- 
deed, they sometimes travel far into Asia before finally 
dying out. 

Since the movement of their centre is always eastward, 
these storms are doubtless a part of the prevailing wester- 
lies. But since they are composed of currents of air from 
all directions, they are a source of numerous disturbances 
in the lower layers of this great eastward drift of air. 
Indeed, they resemble eddies in a river, where the water 
of the eddies is whirling around in various directions, 
though the general current of the river is down stream. 

In Europe and western Asia, as in America, the extent 
of the country upon which rain may be falling from the 
clouds of one of these storms is sometimes ver} r great. 
Places hundreds of miles apart may be receiving rain at 
the same time. In Eurasia also, as in America, the weather 
is made changeable by these storms. That is, in any 
particular locality it may be warm and pleasant one day, 
stormy the next, then clear and cool or cold. Similar 
cyclonic storms develop in the prevailing westerly belt of 
the southern hemisphere, where they bring changes of 
weather to southern South America, Australia, and the 
islands of the great Southern Ocean. 



40 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Review Questions. — (1) Why should we study about winds ? 
(2) Explain the cause of wind. (3) Explain the trade winds. 
(4) Tell about the belt of calms. Locate the belt. (5) Explain the 
anti-trade winds. (6) Where are the horse latitudes ? How about 
the wind there ? (7) What directions are taken by trades and anti- 
trades? Why? (8) What are the prevailing westerlies? Where 
felt? (9) Why do these belts of wind shift north and south each 
year? (10) Explain how it happens that when air rises, rain com- 
monly follows. (11) Also, why, when it settles, dry weather results. 
(12) Tell about the rainfall in the belt of calms. (13) In the trade-wind 
belts. (14) In the horse latitudes. (15) In the belt of prevailing 
westerlies. (16) Why do some places have both a rainy and a dry 
season each year? (17) Explain monsoons. (18) Where are they 
best developed ? (19) What is their influence on rainfall? (20) Why 
are the winds in the northern hemisphere less regular than those in 
the southern? (21) Tell about cyclonic storms in the United States. 
(22) In Eurasia. 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a drawing to show the direction of the 
regular winds of the world. (2) Watch the higher clouds to see in 
what direction they are moving. (3) Explain what is meant by a 
rainfall of sixty inches. (I) Measure the amount of rain that falls in 
a wash-tub during a single storm. (5) Write a clear statement of the 
reason why there are desert belts both north and south of the equator. 
Give examples. (6) Examine and explain some maps issued by the 
Weather Bureau. (7) Observe and record the changes in wind 
direction, temperature, and rainfall during the passage of a cyclonic 
storm. (8) Read the chapter on cyclonic storms in Tarr's First 
Book of Physical Geography, pp. 102-125. 



V. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND A 
STUDY OF OCEAN CURRENTS 

Distribution op Temperature 

Although you have studied about belts of wind and 
rain, you have noted that there are many irregularities 
and exceptions. This is due to the fact that the boun- 
daries of the heat belts are also irregular, as is shown 
by the isotherms 1 on the isothermal charts of the world. 

If nothing else influenced temperature excepting dis- 
tance from the equator, the isothermal lines would be 
parallel to the circles of latitude. In our study of North 
America, however, we have already learned that the 
temperature of a country is determined by several factors 
besides latitude. These are (1) altitude; (2) the nearness 
to a large body of water ; (3) the direction of the 'prevailing 
winds; and (4) ocean currents. Let us see how each 
of these causes interferes with the regularity of the iso- 
therms. 

Effect of Highlands. — Mountains are colder in both 
summer and winter than low lands in the same latitude. 
Therefore, in crossing mountain chains the isotherms bend 
toward the equator. Our small maps do not show this. 

Effect of Distance from Sea. — Comparing Figures 36 and 

1 An isotherm is a line connecting places having the same average 
temperature. 

41 



42 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 



43 




44 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

37 you will notice that the winter isotherms of the north 
temperate zone bend toward the equator over the conti- 
nents because the land then becomes very cold. During 
the summer, on the contrary, the isotherms curve pole- 
ward, showing that the interiors are then warmer than 
the coast lands in the same latitude. This gives great 
temperature changes from winter to summer, as, for ex- 
ample, on the plains of the United States and Canada. 
Where else on the charts do you find similar extremes of 
temperature ? In what continent is there a still greater 
seasonal change in temperature than in North America? 
Why? 

Effect of Prevailing Winds. — Along the coast of western 
North America, from California to Alaska, the isotherms 
do not follow the parallels of latitude, as we might expect, 
but extend northward and southward almost parallel with 
the coast. The reason for this peculiarity is that the 
prevailing winds are the westerlies, which, blowing from 
the Pacific, bring to the land the nearly uniform tempera- 
ture of the ocean. Can you find other windward coasts 
where a similar influence is exerted ? 

You will notice that there is only about 20° difference 
between winter and summer temperatures on the western 
coast of North America. But on the eastern coast of the 
United States the difference between summer and winter 
is much more marked, because, while some of the winds 
are from the ocean, still more are from the land, which is 
cold in winter and warm in summer. Compare the 
eastern and western coasts of Eurasia in this respect. 
Why does the southeastern coast of South America 
have less change from summer to winter than north- 
eastern North America ? 



distribution of temperature 45 

Ocean Currents 

Cause of Ocean Currents. — There are also many 
variations in the course of the isotherms over the 
oceans. To explain these it is necessary to understand 
the ocean currents, which, you will remember, are caused 
by the winds. By blowing steadily over the surface of 
the water the winds not only set it dancing in waves, but 
also cause it to drift before them. This fact is illustrated 
by the currents along the northern shores of the Indian 
Ocean. In winter the waters flow southwestward, driven 
by the northeast monsoon ; but during the summer mon- 
soon, when the wind changes to the southwest, the currents 
are reversed, and there is a drift toward the northeast. 

Knowing the direction of the regular winds, we can 
understand the course of the ocean currents. Were there 
no continents, the waters of the ocean would drift round 
the earth in two sets of opposite currents, eastward in 
temperate latitudes, where the prevailing westerlies blow, 
and westward in the trade-wind belts. 

In the broad expanse of ocean to the south of Africa and 
South America, where there are no lands to check the water, 
there is a steady eastward drift of the water (Fig. 38). But 
where the oceans are partly enclosed between the conti- 
nents, the great currents are so turned by the land as to 
form five vast eddies of slowly drifting surface waters, two 
north of the equator and three south of it. These bring 
enormous quantities of cool water into the torrid zone, so 
tempering the heat as to make that region habitable. 
And they also bear back toward polar latitudes stores of 
heat sufficient to adapt, to man's commerce and tillage, 
shores and lands that would otherwise be icebound. 



46 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

The Pacific Currents. — In the Pacific Ocean the equa- 
torial drift, caused by the northeast and southeast trades, 
moves toward the continents and islands of the Old World 
(Fig. 38). Upon approaching these lands the drifts are 
turned, a part to the south, a part to the north. Under 
the influence of the earth's rotation the southern current 
is turned to the left, the northern to the right. Thus the 
northern current swings past the East Indies and Japan, 
and, still turning under the influence of rotation, leaves the 
Asiatic coast and returns toward America, now driven by 
the westerly winds as a broad drift. Approaching British 
Columbia, most of the water continues to circle to the 
right, passing southward and, as it turns eastward again 
in the trade-wind belt, finally completing the great eddy 
of the North Pacific. 

Where this drift crosses from Japan it is known as the 
Japan Current (Fig. 38). In its waters tree trunks and 
other tropical products are borne far away to the treeless 
islets northeast of Japan. The northward bend of the 
isotherms over the ocean (Fig.- 36) suggests the enormous 
stores of heat which this current carries from the torrid 
£one. The westerly winds bear some of this warmth to 
the western slopes of Canada and the United States. 

A small branch of the current turns northward along the 
Alaskan coast, and its warm waters temper the winds of Alaska. 
There is also a current between the Japan Current and the 
coast of Asia. But this is a drift of cold water from the north, 
as you can see by noticing how it bends the isotherms south- 
ward near the coast (Fig. 37). Winds from this cold current 
chill the Siberian coast, and cause the harbors, like that of 
Vladivostok, to be icebound in winter. This explains why 
Kussia has leased the Chinese harbor at Port Arthur south of 




Wi 



J4H 



48 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Korea, as a terminus of the great Siberian railway, — that her 
commerce and war-ships might not be shut up in winter. 

Eddies of the Southern Oceans. — In the South Pacific, 
South Atlantic, and Indian oceans, the same causes have 
produced eddies similar to that of the North Pacific ; but 
here the earth's rotation deflects both winds and water 
currents to the left. Some of the water of these eddies 
joins the broad West Wind Drift of the distant southern 
ocean ; but much of it turns northward until it once more 
reaches the trade-wind belt, thus completing the eddies. 

The north-moving portion of these eddies brings cool water 
toward the equator and thus chills the ocean, and, therefore, 
the winds that blow upon the neighboring lands. On Fig- 
ure 36 find some places where the isotherms bend northward, 
showing this effect of these currents. Where do they bend 
southward, showing that warm water is being carried from 
the torrid zone ? Compare the isothermal and ocean current 
charts (Figs. 36, 37, and 38) to see which currents are responsi- 
ble for this bending of the isotherms. 

North Atlantic Currents. — In the North Atlantic the 
isotherms are even more irregular, and we readily see that 
the effect of the currents on the lands and peoples is 
more important. To value rightly these effects on life 
we should know their causes. Since the eastern angle of 
South America is south of the equator, it turns more of 
the equatorial drift of water into the North Atlantic than 
into the South Atlantic, as Figure 38 shows. The greater 
part of this northward-moving drift circles to the right, 
outside the West Indies (Fig. 39), and crosses the ocean 
toward Spain. A large portion of it then returns to the 
trade-wind belt, completing the eddy. 



DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 



49 



A small part of the equatorial drift passes into the 
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and there is heated 
still further. Escaping between Florida and Cuba, this 
current is increased in velocity as it is forced through 




Fig. 39. 
A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to illustrate 
the currents clearly it has seemed necessary to make them as if they were 
sharply hounded, like a river in its channel. As a matter of fact, however, 
the boundaries of these great currents and drifts are so indefinite that, in 
crossing them, one would not be able to detect the boundaries even by using 
the greatest care. 

that narrow strait. Its speed increases to four or five 
miles per hour, and it therefore well deserves the name 
of Gulf Stream. 

Turning toward the right, the Gulf Stream reaches the 
belt of prevailing westerly winds, where its waters are 



50 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

driven onward to the northern coast of Europe. This 
drift is joined by water, driven by the west winds, from 
the great North Atlantic Eddy, and thus vast quantities 
of warm water are moved into the northeastern Atlantic 
and even into the Arctic to the north of Europe. 

Westerly winds, warmed in passing over this drift, have 
made possible the great civilized nations of northern Europe, 
the fatherland of so many Americans. What a striking con- 
trast these nations present to the scattered savages of dreary 
Labrador and Kamchatka, in the same latitude, whose winds 
come either from the land or from over cold currents. Notice 
how far northward the isotherms of the northeastern Atlantic 
curve in January (Fig. 36), when the strong westerly winds of 
that season bear warm waters onward into the cold northern 
ocean. Owing to this warmth Russia is able to have a harbor 
on the very shores of the Arctic. 

Much of the water which enters the Arctic from the 
south returns in the Labrador Current (Yig. 39), a cold 
current which flows between the Gulf Stream and the 
shores of Labrador and New England. It is partly the 
easterly cyclonic winds from over this cold current that 
make Labrador so bleak, and the New England coast so 
agreeable in summer and so damp and chilly in winter. 

The isotherms of the North Atlantic are close together as 
they leave America, but spread apart like a fan toward the 
Old World (Figs. 36 and 37). The cause is evident. On the 
American side the currents approach each other, one from the 
north bearing Arctic cold, the other from the warm south. 
This causes great temperature contrasts between our northern 
and southern coasts. On the European side one part of 
the ocean drift passes northward, raising the temperature- and 
bending the isotherms far northward. The remainder turns 
southward and. beinsr somewhat cooler than the region into 



DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 51 

which it enters, slightly lowers the temperature and bends the 
isotherms southward. Thus the isotherms are spread apart. 

When the first settlers came from England they ex- 
pected to find in the New World a climate like their own 
in the same latitude. They were unprepared for the 
severe winters which they actually found, and thus the 
first settlements on the New England and Canadian coasts 
were failures. 

Review Questions — (1) "What factors determine the temperature 
of a country? (2) What is an isotherm? (3) How do highlands 
affect the isotherms? (I) Give examples showing how isotherms 
are affected by distance from the ocean. (5) By prevailing winds. 
(6) State the cause of ocean currents. (7) Locate the five vast eddies 
of ocean waters. (8) Teh about the Japan Current and its effects. 
(9) Tell about other currents in the North Pacific and their 
effects. (10) Tell about the eddies in the southern oceans, and 
their influence on the isotherms. (11) Describe the Xorth Atlantic 
Eddy and the Gulf Stream. (12) How do they influence the iso- 
therms? (13) In what respects are the Gulf Stream and the West 
"Wind Drift particularly important? (II) Locate the Labrador Cur- 
rent and state its influences. (15) How are ocean currents of great 
service in both frigid and torrid zones ? 

Suggestions — (1) Does the presence of a warm or cold current 
near a certain country necessarily greatly affect the climate of that 
country? ("2) Locate the cold ocean currents of the world. The 
warm currents. (3) What is the effect of warm currents upon the 
building of coral islands ? (I) TeU about the icebergs in the Labra- 
dor Current. (5) Estimate the length of the circumference of the 
great eddy in the North Pacific. (6) Name several points in the 
world that have about the same average temperature in January 
as Chicago. (7) Which of these would have about the same range 
of temperature, — or difference between summer and winter, — that 
Chicago has ? (8) What is meant by the heat equator ? Where is it 
in July? (Figs. 31 and 32.) In January? "Where farthest from the 
geographic equator? Why? (9) Follow one of the isotherms on the 
map and explain the larger irregularities. 



VI. PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

Zones of Life. — As there are three zones of climate, 
— tropical, temperate, and frigid, — so there are three 
great divisions of life ; for both plants and animals vary 
with temperature and rainfall. State some reasons why 
this must be true and give illustrations. But since there 
are differences of climate within each of the great zones, 
there must also be differences in the plant and animal life. 
We shall now study about some of the great life zones. 

Tropical Forest Belt. — The tropical zone is a region of 
continual warmth and, in many portions, of abundant 
rainfall. Name some of the sections in this belt that 
have heavy rainfall. In this hot climate the vegetation 
retains its leaves and grows throughout the year. Owing 
to this fact and to the abundant moisture, the foliage is 
very heavy (Fig. 40) and the ground is densely shaded. 
Among the trees there are many of great value either for 
their wood, their sap, or their fruits. Mention some of 
them. Name some valuable food plants that grow only 
in tropical regions. 

The dense foliage of the forests greatly hinders evaporation, 
and renders the atmosphere so damp that many plants thrive 
with their roots in the air instead of in the soil. Aside from 
trees, therefore, there are vines and hanging plants without 
number (Fig. 86), some of the most beautiful kinds being 
the orchids which abound. The forest tangle thus produced 
is almost impenetrable. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 53 

The labor required to clear land producing such vegeta- 
tion — and to keep it clear for farming — is far greater 
than in the temperate forest regions of the United States. 
This difficulty is increased, too, by the extreme heat and 




Fig. 40. 
A view in the tropical forest of South America, showing the dense tangle of 

vegetation. 

by the unhealthfulness resulting from dampness. For 
these reasons, in spite of the great fertility of the soil, 
the zone of dense tropical forests is almost everywhere 
sparsely inhabited ; and in nearly every case its inhabit- 



54 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



ants are savages. They have become accustomed to the 
climate, and, owing to the ever present supply of food 
which the surrounding trees and bushes afford, they find 
little work necessary. Is that good fortune for them ? 
On the other hand, there is an enormous variety of ani- 
mals in this forest belt. Can you give reasons why ? 

Among the animals insects are especially abundant. Some, like 
the beautiful butterflies, thrive because of the abundance and 

variety of tropical 
flowers ; others, like 
many species of ants, 
live in the decaying 
wood ; and still 
others have their 
homes in the ground. 
Some are harmless; 
but many, like the 
ants, which swarm 
in great numbers, 
are very trouble- 
some. 

Where there is 
much fruit and in- 
sect life for food, 
birds abound; and 
the variety and 
beauty of the hum- 
ming-birds, parrots, 
paroquets, birds of 
paradise, and other species of bird life in the tropical forest, 
are far famed. 

Among the mammals there is less variety and abundance, 
the greatest number, as the monkeys and sloths (Fig. 81), being 
tree-dwellers. Others, like the tapir, live in the swampy 
undergrowth ; and some very large animals, like the rhinoce- 




Fig. 41. 
The tiger of India. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 55 

ros and elephant (Fig. 52), still live in the dense forest, where 
it is difficult to hunt them. Occasionally, too, fierce animals, 
such as the tiger (Fig. 41), in the Old World, and the jaguar, 
in the New, lurk in the densely growing vegetation, ready to 
pounce upon the more defenceless, plant-eating animals. 

Keptiles also thrive in the warmth and dampness of the 
forest. Great snakes twine themselves like huge vines among 
the trees and underbrush, and poisonous serpents are common. 
The standing bodies of water encourage water life, — for ex- 
ample, the turtle and alligator among reptiles, and the hippo- 
potamus and manatee among mammals. 

It is, first of all, the dampness and warmth that lead to so 
much animal life. But another fact should also be kept in 
mind ; namely, that there is a great abundance of plants upon 
which the animals can feed. Even those, like the jaguar, that 
live upon other animals, are finally dependent upon plants ; 
for the animals upon which they feed are, in most cases, 
plant eaters. 

Savannas. — On either side of the tropical forest is a 
belt where the-temperature is always high, but where the 
rainfall varies with the season, being rainy when the belt 
of calms migrates to it, and dry in the opposite season 
when swept by the trade winds (p. 34). This belt of 
alternate dry and moist conditions is best developed in 
the interior of continents, and is rarely found on east- 
facing coasts. Why not ? 

Owing to the absence of rain during one season, dense 
forests are impossible ; but some plants, such as grasses, 
thrive. These are therefore grass-covered lands and are 
known as savannas (Fig. 42). 

The downs of northern Australia, the park lands lying 
both north and south of the equator in Africa, the campos 
of Brazil, and the llanos of Venezuela and Colombia, are all 



56 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



examples of savannas. They are dry and barren in one 
season, fresh and green in the other. Trees, such as palms, 
line the streams ; but elsewhere the land is open. Grass-eating 
animals roam about ; for example, in Africa the antelope, 
gazelle, zebra, giraffe, buffalo, elephant, and rhinoceros. In 
addition there are some flesh-eating animals, such as the lion 
(Fig. 43). 




Fig. 42. 
Negro huts on the savanna along the Upper Nile. 

While tropical forests are unsuited to the life^ of any 
persons but indolent savages, the open savannas invite 
human inhabitants in spite of the heat. They* also com- 
pel industry, because provision must be made for the 
period of drought. Therefore those African negroes who 
inhabit the grass lands keep flocks and carry on rude 
forms of agriculture. Where settled by white men, 
these savannas are to-day mainly grazing lands ; but they 
are no doubt destined to become the seat of important 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



57 



agriculture, for they are adapted to the cultivation of 
many subtropical plants. 

The Desert. — While the savannas grade into tropical 
forests on the side next to the equator, they are gradually 
replaced by deserts on the other side. Locate these deserts 
in Australia south of the equator, in Asia north of the 




Fig. 43. 
The African lion. 



equator, and in Africa and America on both sides of the 
equator (Figs. 26-30). Explain their aridity. 

In the desert there are vast stretches in which the sand 
is moved before the wind and piled into sand hills or dunes. 
There are also tracts glistening with salt where the water 
of interior basins has evaporated and left salt upon the 
surface. Parts of the desert are broad plains ; but there 
are also stony plateaus, deep valleys, and mountain ranges. 



58 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



Throughout much of the desert there is such a lack of 

rain that the surface is barren and desolate at all times. 

But even there, plants and animals are not entirely 

lacking. In some sections there are scattered clumps 

of coarse grass ; and 
there are prickly plants, 
like the cacti and the 
acacias, in which the 
leaves and steins are as 
small as possible to pre- 
vent evaporation. In 
place of a dense tropi- 
cal foliage there is a 
marked absence of 
leaves, and a large part 
of the plant is under- 
ground. This is be- 
cause the roots must 
struggle hard to find the necessary moisture, and the por- 
tion above ground must use as little moisture as possible 
and waste none ; for years may pass before rain comes. 

That the soil is usually fertile is proved by the fact 
that wherever there is fresh water, as along a stream, 
vegetation thrives. Such watered spots in the desert are 
called oases. The Sahara caravans halt in these garden 
patches, where tall date palms grow and supply a fruit of 
great value as a food. 




tfiG. 44 
The " Ship of the Desert.' 



Why so named ' 



One of the few animals native to the deserts of the Old 
World is the ostrich. Another, much used by man, is the 
camel (Fig. 44). The latter well illustrates how animals 
become adapted to their surroundings. Each foot has a broad 
sole which aids it in travelling by preventing the feet from 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



59 



sinking into the sand. The nostrils can be closed when neces- 
sary and the eyes are protected by a veil of hair. Both of 
these devices are of much use in keeping out the sand which 
is so often blown about. The camel is further provided with 
pouches in which enough water may be stored to serve it two 
or three days ; and owing to its fatty hump, which can be drawn 
upon for the nourishment of its body, it can also go without 
food longer than most other animals. 



Human beings naturally shun the desert. Permanent 
homes can exist only on the oases (Fig. 45) ; but wander- 
ing tribes, or nomads, roam about there. They live in 
temporary tents, 
and are engaged 
in herding, or in 
driving caravans 
of camels laden 
with articles of 
trade. Sometimes 
they even raid 
the caravans of 
others for the 
booty they may 
obtain. 

Life in Temperate Zones. — The land of temperate zones 
is typically forest covered. This is not due to abundance 
of rainfall so much as to moderate evaporation in the cool 
climate, which permits the ground to remain moist through- 
out the summer. Thus a broad forest belt crosses the 
northern interiors of both North America and Europe. 
Owing to the less extensive rainfall in some parts, and to 
the rigor of the climate in others, the forest is more open 
than in the tropics. 




Fig. 45. 
Loading a camel on an oasis in Algeria. 



60 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



Steppes and Arid Plains. — There are also treeless, grass- 
covered lands in the temperate belt, usually on the border 
of the deserts in the interior of continents where the rain- 
fall is light. In the Old World, where these tracts are 
called steppes, there is a broad strip extending from south- 
eastern Europe to central Asia. The Great Plains of 




Fig. 46. 
A group of Persian nomads with their summer tents. 



western North America, and the treeless plains, or pampas, 
of Argentina are also steppes (Fig. 91). 

Spring rains cause the grass to be green in spring and 
early summer ; but drought then changes it to gray and 
yellow. There are no trees excepting along the streams ; 
and only on the very border of the steppes is there rain- 
fall enough for agriculture without irrigation. The wild 
animals are grass eaters (Jierhivora), and the steppes 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 61 

formerly supported great herds of deer, antelope, and 
bison ; but • cattle, sheep, horses, and camels have largely 
replaced them. The inhabitants of the steppes in the Old 
World have for many centuries led a pastoral life and 
have become nomads. They wander about and live in 
tents during the summer (Fig. 46) ; but in winter they 
select more permanent homes for the sake of protection 
against the weather. They depend upon the horse to such 
an extent that it has become almost a part of their life. 

Prairies. — Besides the vast tracts of arid steppes, there are 
some treeless plains even in parts of the temperate zone where 
the rainfall is heavy enough for tree growth. Examples of 
these are the prairies in the United States and some of the 
plains in southern Russia. Some think that fires have removed 
the forests ; others that the fine-grained soil has prevented tree 
growth ; but probably each cause has aided. 

Forests of the Temperate Zone. — Near the torrid zone 
the trees are for the most part tropical in kind. In the 
cooler temperate latitudes, however, they are principally of 
two sorts : (1) the evergreens, including the pine, spruce, 
and hemlock, that have needle-like leaves which remain 
green throughout the winter, and (2) the deciduous trees, 
whose leaves are much larger, but fall when frost comes. 

The value of the forests to man is great, for the coldness of 
the climate in the densely inhabited temperate zone demands 
that men shall build permanent houses for their protection. 
To what other uses is the wood put ? On the other hand, the 
forests have interfered with man's development, for the trees 
must be cut away before agriculture is possible. In Europe, 
however, a large part of the forest has been removed, and 
much has also been cleared away in the United States. What 
about Canada ? 



62 



G EJSERA L GEO G RAPH Y 



The temperate forest was the home of many wild animals, 
now mostly exterminated, or greatly reduced in number. 
Name some of those of North America. Owing to the coldness 
of the northern sections these animals are protected by fur, 
which men find of such use that the hunting of fur-bearing 
animals is one of their occupations in the forest. 

People of the Temperate Zone. — In the temperate zone 
of North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia, 
both the cleared forest lands and the humid, grass-covered 
plains have become the seats of extensive agricultural 

industries. In 
fact, the temper- 
ate zones are 
the agricultural 
zones of the 
world, and they 
might almost be 
called the zones 
of grain (Fig. 
47). Make a list 
of the grains that 
are cultivated ; 
also of the fruits. 
In this tem- 
perate belt, too, man has developed most highly. The 
simple life of the savage in the tropical forest, and of the 
nomad on the desert and steppes, contrasts strikingly with 
the varied life of the agricultural people in the temperate 
belt. Not only are the latter more highly civilized, but 
they have so increased in numbers that the temperate zone 
is the most densely populated belt in the world. Suggest 
some reasons for this. 




Fig. 47. 

A field of grain in Russia with the forest in the back- 
ground — a familiar scene in the cool temperate 
belt. Have you seen a view resembling this ? 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



63 



Life in the Frigid Zone. — As one passes to the colder 
margin of the north temperate zone the trees become 
stunted and the conditions grow less favorable to agricul- 
ture. Beyond this, stretch vast expanses of frozen ground 
known as the tundras. These are covered with snow in 







Fig. 48. 
A camp on the edge of the tundra of northern Asia. What do you see in this 

picture ? 

winter ; but in summer, when the snow melts, they are in 
most places exposed to the air. 

During summer the frost leaves the ground to a depth of 
two or three feet, although below that depth the earth remains 
frozen for scores of feet. The continual thawing at this sea- 
son keeps the soil so moist that the tundras are everywhere 
swampy, even on the hillsides. Then everything grows rap- 
idly ; the green grass springs up and bright flowers dot the 
turf. No large bushes or trees are to be seen, for all plants 
remain as close to the ground as possible. Why should they ? 



64 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

These regions are often compared with the tropical deserts 
in their absence of animal life; and the reindeer is compared 
to the camel because it permits a few persons to eke out an 
existence in the frozen desert (Fig. 48). But there are differ- 
ences; the tundra is a desert because the cold prohibits most 
forms of life during the greater part of the year, while the 
tropical desert is always forbidding. Why ? During the short 
summer, when the tundra blossoms into life, swarms of insects, 
especially mosquitoes, infest the morasses ; and the berries of 
the previous season, uncovered from the snows, supply food to 
land birds. Why should these birds, together with the foxes 
and polar bears, be protected with thick white coats ? 

While life in most forms is scarce on the tundras, along the 
seacoast it exists in abundance. Vast numbers of birds feed 
upon the minute sea animals in summer, and migrate southward 
in winter when ice covers the sea and cuts off their food supply. 
The walrus, whale, narwhal, and seal sport in the water, the 
latter in such numbers as to supply the chief food for the scat- 
tered colonies of Eskimos and other people who live along the 
coast. 

Oceanic Life There is little variety in the plant life 

of the sea. Animal life, on the other hand, is extremely 
varied and abundant. Countless millions of minute crea- 
tures, floating in the surface waters, serve as food for larger 
species, such as the whale and the food fishes. Some of 
the food fishes, as the mackerel and menhaden, swim at the 
surface in multitudes, called schools. Others, as the hali- 
but and cod, live on the bottom, especially on those shallow 
banks that are swept by the food-bringing currents. 

Animals inhabit all parts of the ocean, even the deep sea 
and the surface water far from land. But the chief fishing 
grounds are the seacoast itself and those shallow banks near 
the coast that can be easily reached. Besides the various 
species of food fish, there are shellfish, such as clams and oys- 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



65 



ters ; and crustaceans, such as crabs and lobsters. Among the 
important lower forms unsuited for food are the sponges, and 
the tiny corals out of whose limy skeletons many islands in 
the ocean have been built. 

Some of the higher ocean animals once lived entirely on 
land, and have slowly adapted themselves to the ocean. 
The polar bear, for instance, lives partly on the 
ice-covered sea ; and many birds, as the penguins 
and ducks, spend part of their time in the water. 
The seals, related to the bears, still crawl upon 
the shore at times, though their natural home is 
now the water ; but the whale never leaves the 
water, though he must still have air to breathe. 

Causes for Distribution of Plants and 
Animals. — In what has been said 
about the tropical forests, the 
camel, seal, and whale, there lies 
the suggestion that the different 
sections of the earth 
were not sup- 
plied with cer- 
tain forms of 
life at the be- 
ginning which 
they were to 
preserve 
throughout 

all ages. On the contrary, it seems that plants and ani- 
mals, like man himself, have been forced to adapt them- 
selves to the conditions which surrounded them. 

This is now generally believed to be the truth. Plants 
and animals, like the earth itself, have been constantly 
changing ; and the wonderful ways in which they are now 




Fig. 49. 
The kansraroo of Australia. 



66 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

adapted to their surroundings is the result of ages of 
struggle in which tens of thousands of species have been 
destroyed because they could not fit themselves to the 
changing conditions. This conclusion finds support from 
a study of life upon oceanic islands. 

Many islands far from land support some of the plants 
and animals that exist upon the nearest continents. For 
instance, the Bermudas have forms of life similar to those 
of North America. But many of the species living on the 
mainland, particularly those kinds that could not endure 
a long journey, are absent from such islands. 

Birds, bats, and insects, being able to fly, naturally find 
their way to the islands. Some reptiles are also found, 
since, without food or water, they are able to float long dis- 
tances clinging to logs. But large and highly developed 
mammals, like the elephant, tiger, or deer, are almost always 
absent from oceanic islands. 

Australia is really a great oceanic island ; but it has many 
large animals which differ from those found on the other 
continents. There are kangaroos (Fig. 49), some varieties 
of which are large, others small like rats, but all of which 
leap clumsily about on two legs, aided by the large, mus- 
cular tail. And there is the duck-billed platypus, which, 
though a mammal, lays eggs as birds and reptiles do. 
The peculiarity of these Australian mammals is that their 
young are not nearly so developed as are the young of the 
higher mammals. Other Australian mammals, birds, and 
even plants are also peculiar. 

Fossils in the rocks prove that, long ago, animals similar 
to those of Australia lived on the other continents. It 
is believed that mammals reached Australia in those 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



67 



ancient times when that continent was still connected 

with other lands. Then came a sinking of a part of the 

earth's crust, 

separating 

Australia 

from the other 

continents, 

where fierce 

animals later 

developed 

which were 

unable to 

cross the sea 

to Australia. fig. 50. 

Therefore the The llama of Peru, a South American animal not found in 

North America. 

weak ma m- 

mals were able to survive in Australia while the same 

kind elsewhere were destroyed. 





Fig. 51. 

Buffalo cow and camel in the Nile. These animals are common to Africa 

and southern Asia. 

North and South America have some animals in com- 
mon, such as the puma, jaguar, and tapir ; but on the 



68 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



whole there is a marked difference between the faunas of 
the two continents (Fig. 50). One reason for this differ- 
ence is that in past ages South America was entirely cut 
off from the northern continent. 

Africa has much the same climate as South America ; 
but, being so widely separated by ocean water, the faunas 
of these two continents are entirely 
different. On the other hand, many 
of the animals of southern Asia, such 
as the lion and elephant (Fig. 52), 
are similar to those of Africa (Fig. 
51), since the two land areas are so 
close together. 

The north temperate zone, includ- 
ing much of North America and 
Eurasia, has closely related species of 
plant and animal life. Throughout 
this vast area there are pines, spruces, 
hemlocks, oaks, maples, etc., on the 
one hand, and bears, wild cats, 
wolves, deer, foxes, beavers, etc., 
on the other. The reindeer of 
Europe and Asia (Fig. 48) is almost 
identical with the caribou of Amer- 
ica ; and there is also a close re- 
The elephant, an animal semblance among the birds. This 

common to southern ..,.,. .1 i . -i-x 

Asia and Africa. similarity is partly due to similarity 

in climate, and partly, perhaps, to a 
former connection of the two lands. There is, however, 
little resemblance between the life of this belt and that of 
central Africa and southern Asia ; for the vast desert belt 
and the lofty mountains have served as barriers to the 
spread of plants and animals. 




Fig. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



69 




Thus it is seen that the life on each continent has varied 
from time to time, and that both plants and animals have 
spread wherever conditions allowed. The great- 
est barrier to a general distribution has been the 
ocean ; but deserts and mountains have also 
offered effective resistance. State why. 

Changes throughout the ages, causing variations 
in climate, in the land surface, in the food supply, 
and in the introduction of new enemies, have 
brought death to many species. This may be illus- \ 
trated by those extinct relatives of the elephant, I 
the huge mammoths and mastodons, that formerly 
lived in the cold temper- -^ gg| -^^^ f 



is 



also 



ate zone. It 
illustrated by many 
birds. In former times 
running birds (Fig. 53), 
like the ostrich, were 
abundant ; but they are 
now giving place to small 
flying birds, that are bet- 
ter adapted to their en- 
vironment. 

Man is at present one 
of the most effective 
agents in producing 
changes in the plant and 
animal world. He is 
constantly developing 
new varieties of each, 
while destroying older forms. He has improved and domesti- 
cated many wild animals, but has exterminated some, like the 
auk, and nearly destroyed others, like the bison. The changes 
he has caused in the vegetable kingdom are to be seen on every 
hand. Can you mention some of them ? 




The emu of Australia, one of the running 
birds. 



70 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Review Questions. — (1) By what factors are life zones deter- 
mined? (2) Describe the conditions of plant life in the tropical 
forest. (3) What effect have these conditions upon human beings? 
(4) Upon animals? (5) What is the origin of savannas? (6) Lo- 
cate some of them. (7) What about plants, animals, and people 
there ? (8) Tell about the desert : cause, characteristics, plants, 
oases, animals, and people. (9) Tell about the conditions of life on 
the steppes and arid plains. (10) What is known about the cause 
of prairies? (11) Tell about the temperate forests: trees, animals, 
and human inhabitants. (12) Tell about life in the frigid zone. 
(13) Tell about the tundras: vegetation, similarity to the desert, 
animal life, and human inhabitants. (14) Tell about ocean life : 
plants, food fishes, other important animals and land animals that have 
learned to live in the sea. (15) What about the adaptation of animals 
to their surroundings ? (16) What light is thrown upon this question 
by the life on ocean islands ? (17) Give some facts about Australian 
animals and the reasons for their peculiarity. (18) Tell about the 
animals on each of the other continents. (19) What are the great 
barriers to the spread of life ? (20) Name some causes for extermi- 
nation of species. 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a collection of different kinds of wood. 
(2) Notice how some of them are polished for use as furniture. (3) See 
some orchids, if possible. (4) Visit a museum to see specimens of 
tropical animals. (5) Examine a cactus closely. (6) Examine and 
compare the foliage of some evergreens and deciduous trees. (7) Find 
out what is meant by evolution and the survival of the fittest, as these 
terms are applied to plants and animals. (8) What dangerous ene- 
mies have you observed for certain plants? (9) For certain animals? 
(10) Collect pictures of animals belonging to different parts of the 
world. 



VII. THE HUMAN RACE 



Divisions of Mankind 

Man, like plants and animals, varies in different parts 
of the world. He is influenced by bis surroundings, as 
they are, and in the course of time has developed differ- 
ently in the various lands of the earth. Concerning the 
origin of the human 



race, and its divisions, 
people hold different 
views ; but mankind 
in general may be di- 
vided into four great 
groups. 

Ethiopians. — Alto- 
gether there are about 
one and one-half bill- 
ion human beings up- 
on the earth, or twenty 
times the number in 
the United States. 
Of these the lowest are 
the negroes (Figs. 54 
and 62) or Ethiopians, who number about one hundred 
and seventy-five million. This is often called the black 
race. There are many subdivisions of this group, but 
they are all characterized by a deep brown or black skin, 
short, black, woolly hair, broad flat noses, and prominent 
cheek bones. 

71 




Fig. 54. 
An African negro girl. 



72 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



The home of the Ethiopians is Africa south of the 
Sahara 'desert (Fig. 60), though many have been trans- 
ported to other lands as slaves, and have there mingled 
more or less with the other races. In their original home 
the negroes are savages, or barbarians of low type. 

The native Australians (Fig. 55), the Papuans of New 
Guinea, the Negritos of the Philippines, and the blacks on 

some other islands in that 
part of the world resemble 
the negroes most closely, 
though differing from 
them in some important 
respects. They are 
shorter, for example, their 
hair is less woolly, their 
noses straighter, and their 
lips less thick. 

American Indians. — 
A second great division 
of the human race is that 
of the red men or Ameri- 
can Indians, often called 
the red race. It is the 
smallest of the four 
groups, numbering about twenty-two million. These 
people, who in some respects resemble the Mongolians 
(p. 73), were in possession of both North and South 
America when Columbus discovered America. They 
were, however, divided into many tribes. While the 
Indians have been largely displaced by white men, many, 
especially in the tropics (Figs. 56, 61, and pp. 107-109), 
are still living' in the savage state. 




Fig. 55. 
A native of New South Wales, Australia. 



THE HUMAN RACE 



73 



They are distinguished by a copper-colored skin, promi- 
nent cheek bones, black eyes, and long, coarse black hair. 
When discovered 
many were sav- 
ages, while others 
had risen to the 
stage of barbar- 
ism. In fact, the 
Aztecs of North 
America and the 
Incas of South 
America had even 
developed some 
of the arts of civ- 
ilization (p. 109). 

Mongolians. — 
The third divi- 
sion, the Mongo- 
lian or yellow race, 
numbering about 
five hundred and forty million, are typically Asiatic 
people, the greater number being found in Asia and the 
islands of the Pacific (Fig. 60). Some, as the Finns, 
Lapps, and Turks, have settled in Europe, while the 
Eskimos have spread eastward along the shores of Arctic 
America. 

The Mongolians, typically represented by the Chinese 
and Japanese (Figs. 57 and 68), have a yellowish and in 
some cases even a white skin, prominent cheek bones, small 
oblique eyes, a small nose, and long, coarse black hair. 
In places, as on the more remote islands, the Mongolians 
are uncivilized ; but the great majority may be classed as 




Fig. 56. 
South American Indians. 



74 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



civilized people, although their standard of civilization 
differs from that of the white race. 

Caucasians. — By far the largest and most civilized of 
the four divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian 




Fig. 57. 
Japanese ladies. 



race, which numbers about seven hundred and seventy 
million. Their original home is not known. Some be- 
lieve it to have been in the plateau of central Asia, others 
in the northern part of Africa. With the dawn of his- 
tory the white peoples of Europe were mostly barbarians ; 



THE HUMAN RACE 



75 



but civilization had begun to develop in southern and west- 
ern Asia and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 

At present the white race occupies most of Europe, 
North- and South America, Australia, and large portions 
of Asia and Africa. It 
is the most widely dis- 
tributed of the four di- 
visions (Fig. 60). Be- 
sides Europeans (Fig. 
58) it includes the 
Egyptians, Arabs, and 
Abyssinians of Africa ; 
also the Arabs, Persians, 
Armenians, Afghans, and 
Hindus of Asia (Fig. 
59). 

While for various 
reasons the Caucasians 
differ greatly in charac- 
teristics, two main 
branches are recognized : 
(1) the fair type (Fig. 
58), with florid complex- 
ion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, blue or gray eyes, and 
height above the average ; (2) the dark type (Fig. 59), 
with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often wavy or 
curly, and black eyes. In temperament both are active, 
enterprising, and imaginative, though the fair type is 
more solid, the dark type more emotional. 

Distribution of Races. — For centuries these four great 
divisions of the human race have been changing within 
themselves until there are now many subdivisions of 





'A 


Hik 


A 


^fc 




'■■■ ' w-- : ■•'■4- : - i^* 
.'»»)Wri>-.fM 
4 '5 <?^4^ 




til 

" "*■$*<,- :'|I|W 




5L»- 


HP 










MM 


^^SE^^iKste£p5 




jj^^r^ n 


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Fig. 58. 
A Belgian peasant girl. 



70 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



each group. By war and invasion they have encroached 
upon one another, and have intermixed to some extent. 
But the leaders are the whites, who, having learned the 
use of ships in exploring distant lands, have spread with 




Fig. 59. 
A group of Indian Brahmins, who belong to the dark type of Caucasians. 

a rapidit}^ never seen before. Also, being more advanced 
than the others, the white races have readily conquered 
the weaker people and taken their lands from them. They 
now dominate the world (see Fig. 60), the only division 
that has held out against them being the Mongolians, 
whose very numbers have in large measure served to 
protect them. 



78 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



Development of Civilization 

The facts of history indicate that the civilized races 
of the world have developed from a state of savagery 
or barbarism. It is further believed that certain races 
have not developed because of unfavorable surroundings. 

These are called natural races 
because they still depend di- 
rectly upon nature for their 
food, clothing, and shelter, while 
the more civilized races have 
to a certain extent risen above 
such dependence. Therefore, 
by studying the natural races 
we may gain some hints con- 
cerning the development of civ- 
ilization. 

Need of Food. — The most 
essential need of man is food ; 
and human beings in general 
are so constituted that they will 
obtain their food in the easiest 
possible manner. If it grows 
upon trees near b}*, or can be 
obtained by simple hunting de- 
vices (Tigs. 56 and 61), man is 
apt to do no more work than is 
necessary to secure food that is 
Fig. oi. near at hand. His life is simple, 

An Indian hunter in the Amazon hi s needs are few, and his ad- 
forest. 

vance is slight. It is in the 
tropics that these conditions exist, and it is there that we 
find the least civilization. 




THE HUMAN BACE 



79 



Where these conditions are found only a small number 
can live, because there is a limit to the food that is easily 
available ; therefore the tropical forest zone is for the 
most part sparsely inhabited. In fact, it is said that parts 
of the tropical forest average but one person for every 
twenty-four square miles ; and most of the inhabitants 
dwell near the rivers. Can 
you suggest reasons for living 
there ? When the numbers 
increase greatly, new means 
of obtaining food must be 
found ; and for this purpose 
war and even cannibalism are 
sometimes resorted to. 

Development of Agri- 
culture. — But by far the 
most common means of add- 
ing to the supply of food is 
through the care of plants 
and animals. The plant world 
offers valuable foods stored in 
seeds, bulbs, and roots. Under 
natural conditions these foods 
are scattered, and agriculture 
doubtless began by gathering them from the wild plants, 
as many native tribes still do. A step in advance would 
be made by planting such seeds near the home and keeping 
out the weeds (Fig. 62). 

Moreover, in some climates it is neeesmry to store a 
supply against a season of need. For example, the winter 
of the temperate zones and the dry season of the savannas 
must be provided for. This encourages industry, thrift, 




Fig. 62. 
An African negro woman planting. 



80 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



the building of permanent homes, and inventions for sav- 
ing labor. Thus agriculture is one of the great civilizers. 

Agriculture probably began upon the open lands; and among 
natural races it is for the most part still confined there. Later 
small patches were cleared in the forest; but this was difficult, 
especially in tropical countries, where the fight against weeds 
is a hard one. It is so hard, in fact, that there is little devel- 
opment of agriculture in such woodlands. The temperate forest 
also offers difficulties, but fewer than that of the tropics, and 
consequently much of it has been cleared. The frigid zone and 
the true desert permit no agriculture ; but where irrigation is 
possible the latter may be made to yield a harvest. Mankind 
early learned to cultivate the soil by aid of irrigation, and 
some of the seats of early civilization, as in Egypt and Persia, 

were on river flood-plains, 



where agriculture was car- 
ried on in that way. 

Development of Graz- 
ing. — In spite of the 
fact that it has been 
difficult to domesticate 
animals, mankind has 
made many of them serve 
his needs. For example, 
the dog has been made 
to aid in hunting ; the 
ox, horse, camel and 
buffalo (Fig. 63) to 
serve as beasts, of bur- 
den ; the sheep, cow, goat, and others to supply materials 
for clothing and food. Name some of the kinds of food 
and clothing obtained from these animals. 

While it was doubtless the needs of the farmer that 




The buffalo in Egypt, one of the many native 
animals that have been domesticated by 
natural races. 



THE HUMAN RACE 



81 



led to the domestication of many animals, it is the herders 
who have come to take care of them most extensively. 
The people who make grazing their occupation find it 
necessary to roam about with their herds in search of 
grass, and are therefore called nomads or wanderers. They 
naturally show preference for the open plains. Why? 

The life of the nomad tends to make him restless, self- 
reliant, and warlike, while that of the farmer is peaceful. Each 




Fig. 64. 
One of the boats in use in Burma in southern Asia. 

class is capable of development to a certain extent, although 
in different ways ; but the best character comes from a union 
of the two natures. Fortunately this union has often been 
effected, though at cost of many human lives. Agricultural 
people have been much exposed to the raids of nomads, who 
had little to lose and much to gain by such war. In con- 
sequence most agricultural races have become mixed with 
nomadic people; for the latter have often conquered whole 
sections of agricultural country. Tor example, the Chinese 
are an agricultural race who have been influenced in this 
manner ; and nomadic hordes from Asia made many incursions 
into Europe in early days. 



82 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Development of Fishing. — A third direction .in which 
natural races have made progress is by contact with the 
sea. To obtain food from the sea, boats were needed (Fig. 
64) ; and when men had come to use them with skill, they 
were able to explore regions beyond their horizon. The 
use of the boat produces men of energy, courage, and skill. 
Partly as a result of this, and partly because of the protec- 
tion which the sea furnishes against invasion, the highest 
advance of races has occurred along the seacoast, especially 
on islands and peninsulas. Why there ? It may be said, 
in fact, that civilization has in general spread from the 
coast to the interior. 

Development in the Temperate Zone. — It is along the 
coasts of the temperate zones that the greatest prog- 
ress has occurred, because, while there are difficulties to 
overcome, they are not great enough to discourage. The 
need of storing supplies for winter has led, by natural 
steps, to the accumulation of wealth, to trade, and to 
various other forms of industry. The farmer, herder, 
and fisherman supply food ; but they in turn need imple- 
ments, clothing, and other articles. At first, among nat- 
ural races, each man supplies these for himself ; but with 
further development it is found desirable to devote one's 
whole time to one's special occupation. Thus some obtain 
food, others make weapons, tools, etc. ; and by the ex- 
change which thus arises, commerce is developed, and 
with it a great advance is made. 

Shelter. — Even the most primitive races have need 
of shelter from the heat, cold, or rain. To this day some 
live in hollow trees, like the beasts ; but most have 
developed a higher type of shelter. A more advanced 
stage is reached when the limbs of low trees and bushes 



THE HUMAN RACE 



83 



4? 

■:uM 



.■.■:■■■■' ■*■ 

• .";■ , ^ i 

> ■ ■'■..■■ ■•■■ ,'■■ : ■■•-' 



, Vr ^ 




are bent over and woven together for protection ; or 
when bushes are stuck into the ground and their limbs 
fastened together. Beginning with these simple devices, 
there is every - - - 7 _ . 

gradation to the 
elaborate grass 
huts of the ne- 
groes (Fig. 65) 
and the wooden 
houses of the 
whites. 

Early races 
often lived in 
caves, especially 
where the cli- 
mate was so cold 
that winter pro- 
tection was necessary. This was true of early Europeans 
and of some American Indians ; it is still practised in 
parts of the earth. It is a step in advance to build partial 
houses beneath overhanging cliffs, where the roof and one 
wall are supplied by the solid rock, as among the cliff 
dwellers of western United States. Then comes the house 
composed entirely of stone, or of dried clay, either the 
sun-dried adobe or the baked brick. The highest devel- 
opment of architecture is reached in the massive public 
buildings of the present day. 

Nomadic races, travelling about as they do, require portable 
dwellings (Fig. 46) ; and their most common shelter is com- 
posed of skins, which are not only light but easily obtained 
from their herds. In case of longer residence in one place 
they may build more permanent homes, either of wood, clay, 



Fig. 65. 
Huts in a negro village in Africa. 



84 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



or stone. Also, with abundance of wool and other kinds of 
animal hair, these people have learned to weave blankets and 
rugs, which are an additional shelter when travelling. 

From these facts it is seen that natural and semi-civilized 
races obtain shelter by the use of materials near at hand and 
adapted to their mode of life. This is especially well illus- 
trated by the Eskimos, whose summer homes, when they are 
moving about, are made of seal and walrus skins ; while their 
winter shelter is built of blocks of ice or snow, the most 
available building materials. 

Sites for Houses. — The sites for these dwellings often 
seem to be selected with reference only to the nearness 
of building materials 
or of food. But very 
commonly they are 
determined by the" ne- 
cessity for protection 
from man or beast. 
The cliff dwellers of 
the West, for example, 
selected their sites with 
the idea of defence 
against wandering 
tribes of savage Ind- 
ians ; and the Pueblo 
Indians built their 
pueblos upon hills for 
the same reason. Civ- 
ilized people, likewise, 
have often located their 
castles upon lofty cliffs. 

Find illustrations in the sections on Europe. Among 
natural races, houses are sometimes built in the treetops 




Fig. 66. 
Houses in the trees in New Guinea. 



THE HUMAN FACE 



85 



(Fig. 66) for protection against enemies ; and sometimes 
they are even built on posts or piles in the water (Fig. 67). 
Towns and Cities. — The same reason that induces nat- 
ural races to build their houses in positions which afford 
protection from enemies, has caused people to collect in 
villages (Fig; 65), towns, and cities. These are often 




Fig. (57. 
A village on piles in New Guinea. 



surrounded by water (Fig. 67) or by stockades ; and in 
the Middle Ages the cities of Europe were very effectively 
protected by walls of stone. Many European and Asiatic 
cities are still enclosed in walls, and in Asia they are even 
now kept in repair ; but the modern cannon render such 
defences of little value. 

While the sites of some cities have been selected for no 
other reason than their ease of defence, the growth of civiliza- 



86 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



tion has given other reasons for people to collect in cities. 
For example, some have simply wanted to live together, or 
to be near valuable mineral deposits, or near water power, etc. 
Give other reasons. 

Clothing. — In regard to clothing, as to shelter, there are 
many varied customs. Here again the natural races show 
most dependence 
upon their surround- 
ings. Some of those 
in the tropical zone 
find very little cloth- 
ing necessary (Figs. 
56, 61, and 87). 
Others clothe them- 
selves in bark, as 
some of the Germanic 
people of Europe did 
in early times. In 
the cold climates 
skins are used, as 
among many of our 
European ancestors, 
and at the present 
time among the Eski- 
mos, Lapps, Fuegians, 
and some of the North 
American Indians. What other reason than cold would lead 
these people to use fur-bearing skins ? 

From the use of such simple natural products it is but a 
step to crude hand manufacture; then follows manufacture by 
machinery, run first by hand or foot (Fig. 58), .then by water 
power, and finally by steam and electric power. Doubtless at 
first such native products as the wool of animals, the fibre of 
wood, wild cotton, and flax were used; then plants and animals 
were raised for their fibre and hair. Even the insects are called 
upon to aid man in his attempt to clothe himself ; for silk is 
used in many lands. 




Fig. 68. 
Japanese rain coats. 



THE HUMAN BACE 



87 



The Development of Language. — There are hundreds 
of different languages among the races of the earth, and 
no one knows their origin and history. In the very ear- 
liest times about which we know there were vast differences 
of speech ; and even since history began to be recorded, the 
speech of na- 
tions has greatly 
changed. For 
example, the 
Greek and Ital- 
ian languages 
of to-day are 
very different 
from the Greek 
and Latin of two 
thousand years 
ago. 

This being the 
case, it is easy to 
see how, if time 
enough is granted, races separated by the sea, mountains, 
or desert will slowly give up old words and evolve new ones. 
This is thought to be the origin of the many different lan- 
guages of the globe. How are these differences in language 
important in checking commerce and preventing sympathy 
of one nation for another ? 

Many natural races have no written language ; others have 
a kind of picture writing (Fig. 69) ; that is, they represent 
their ideas by drawing pictures. It is from such a beginning, it 
is believed, that our writing and, later, our printing have de- 
veloped. Writing and printing have been among the most 
powerful aids to civilization. Can you suggest reasons for this ? 




Message sticks from West Australia — the carvings 
convey messages. 



88 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



Inventions. — Even the lowest races are gifted with, 
some ingenuity and power of invention. The savage hunt- 
ers of the forest make the bow, arrow, and spear (Figs. 5Q 
and 61). Most if not all races know the use of fire and 

how to make it. 
Also pottery- 
making is com- 
mon to all parts 
of the earth. 

Farming has 
been responsible 
for many inven- 
tions — the im- 
plements for 
loosening the 
ground (Fig. 
62), for i3lant- 
ing, for reaping, 
for employing 
beasts of burden, 
including the 
harness itself, 
being good ex- 
amples. Fishing 
has also given rise to many ingenious devices, especially in 
the demand for boats. Some boats are of bark, as among 
the Indians ; or of skin, as among the Eskimos, where bark 
is absent ; or of hollowed logs, as in many parts of the 
world. In time the small, open boats (Fig. 70) were re- 
placed by larger, covered vessels (Fig. 71); and finally 
huge ships have been made of steel. As to motive 
power, oars and paddles (Fig. 67) were first used, then 




Fig. 70. 

A boat with an outrigger to prevent capsizing 
waiian Islands. 



•Ha- 



THE HUMAN RACE 



89 



the wind was called into service (Fig. 71), and finally 
steam. Ships are one of man's most important inven- 
tions. Why ? Of what 
service have printing, 
gunpowder, steam, elec- 
tricity, and labor-saving 
machinery been in ad- 
vancing civilization ? 

Civilized man, instead of 
depending upon wild plants 
and animals for food and 
clothing, has learned to 
cultivate the choicest of 
plants. He has tamed and 
domesticated many species 
of animals, too, and used 
them not merely as a source 
of food but also as an aid in 
his work. More than this, 
he has learned to control 
some of the forces of nature and has caused them to do his 
work in an improved fashion. The result of it all is that thou- 
sands of people are able to live where only one could exist in the 
natural state. For example, while in some parts of the tropics 
there is an average of but one savage for every twenty-four 
square miles, there are whole countries that average several 
thousand civilized men on the same area. 




Fig. 71. 

A Chinese junk, a form of sailing boat long- 
in use by the Chinese. 



Development of the State. — While in some tribes there 
is scarcely any real government, the need of a leader so 
frequently arises, as in the management of a boat or in 
war, that in most cases there is some organization. 
Further than that, war is so common among savage and 
barbarous races that it is of interest for different tribes to 



90 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

combine under a good leader. This forms a beginning 
of tribal government and of the State. 

Sometimes, as among the Indians, the chief is merely a 
representative of the people, leading them, but not having 
absolute power. In other cases he is a despot to whom 
all subjects must yield obedience. Their property, move- 
ments, and very lives are at his mercy, his authority often 
being made especially secure by means of religious beliefs 
and rites, as among many African tribes. 

In early times Europe was occupied by scattered, war- 
ring tribes governed in this loose manner. But with the 
development of Roman civilization on the Mediterranean, 
much of western Europe came under the Roman influence, 
and laws and customs were established which have aided 
greatly in the later civilization of European nations. With 
the decline of the Roman Empire, however, these tribes 
sank back in part to their old conditions. Kings ruled 
portions of the country and fought battles with neighbors, 
aided by leaders or lords, who themselves often became so 
powerful as to be dangerous rivals to the kings. These 
lords lived in well-protected castles, surrounded by farms 
which were worked by the common people, oy peasants, who 
were little better than slaves. They were called vassals, 
and were required to serve their lords and to fight for 
them. 

Under such conditions little advance was possible ; 
for while a few persons possessed much power, the masses 
were kept in poverty and ignorance. Little by little, how- 
ever, the people have made progress toward freedom ; and 
to-day they are in the main emancipated, although in their 
kings and lords most countries of Europe still preserve 
relics of the old system. 



THE HUMAN RACE 91 

Among the causes which have aided in the elevation of 
the people, perhaps none were of more importance than the 
discovery and exploration of new lands. Explain how that 
is true. The masses reached the point where they de- 
manded the right to make their own laws ; and in some 
countries, as in France, they even replaced the monarchy 
by a republic. In England a full measure of liberty was 
obtained without abolishing the monarchy, but only after 
many severe struggles. In America, separated from the 
Old World customs, and peopled by those who fled from 
oppression, the love of freedom was prominent from the 
very first ; and neither hereditary king nor lord checks the 
masses from the full enjoyment of their liberty. 

Development of Religion. — True religion is the climax 
of man's development ; yet every race has some form 
of religion. Among savages it is little more than super- 
stition. They are surrounded by nature, which they 
do not understand. Life and death mystify them ; the 
tree develops from a seed, and the savages know not why ; 
on every hand is mystery. They seek a cause, and, seeing 
none, are led to believe in spirits which they try to com- 
prehend. Some they suppose to be evil, others good. 
Believing that these spirits have great influence over 
their lives, they try to win favor with them by offering 
sacrifices and worshipping them. 

Such religion, if it may be so called, takes many forms. 
Some races, as the negroes, believe in witchcraft; and among 
them the witch doctor is sometimes more powerful than the 
ruler himself. If disease comes, it is ascribed to an evil spirit, 
and it is believed that the witch doctor can effect a cure. To 
ward off such evil influences charms are worn, gross rites are 
observed, and images or objects, called fetishes (Fig. 72), are 



92 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



worshipped because they are believed to possess magic power. 

Among these objects are included fire, the sun, the earthquake, 
and many animals. So far as God is concerned, 
if these people have any conception of Him, 
it is of the crudest kind. The negroes, the 
Indians, the Eskimos, and even our own 
ancestors two thousand years ago had little 
more than this form of relisrion. 



Most races believe in a future life, 
though often vaguely, and as their only 
way of explaining the mystery of death. 
The Indians, for example, think that 
upon death the human spirit goes to a 
happier place, where conditions are some- 
what similar to those on earth. They 
therefore bury hunting implements with 
the dead. All people with such views as 
the preceding are called heathens (Fig. 
74), and are often said to have no reli- 
gion. From our point of view they have 
no true religion ; but they have something 
akin to it. 

Among the semi-civilized and civilized 
races there are forms of belief in which the conception of 
God is higher, and the idea of future reward and punish- 
ment is taught. Of these religions five call for special 
mention. 

Buddhism, followed especially in ea'stern Asia (Fig. 74), 
was established in India five or six hundred years before 
the time of Christ as a result of the work and teachings 
of Buddha (Fig. 73). But there are many differences in 
the religious beliefs and customs of the Asiatic people, 



Fig. 72. 

A fetish from 
Africa. 



THE HUMAN RACE 



93 






and in consequence there are many sects. Brahminism is 
one of the most common forms of belief, being especially 
followed in India. It would be difficult correctly to de- 
scribe the religions of the Asiatic people in a few words ; 
but idolatry, or 
the worship of 
idols, is preva- 
lent among them. 
Ancestor wor- 
ship is common 
in China ; and 
the doctrine of 
caste in India, 
— that is, the 
doctrine of class 
distinction. Both 
of these doc- 
trines, which are 
a part of their 
religion, are op- 
posed to prog- 
ress, as we shall 
see. 

The Jewish re- 
ligion, still fol- 
lowed by many, 
upholds the worship of one righteous God, as taught in the 
Old Testament. From this, two other religions have de- 
veloped, Mohammedanism and Christianity: The prophet 
Mohammed lived about six centuries after Christ, and the 
Koran contains his teachings. Mohammedans deny the 
divinity of Christ. This religion has been spread by the 




Fig. 73. 
A statue, or idol, of Buddha in India. 



94 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



sword with wonderful rapidity, especially among the 
semi-civilized people of Asia and Africa (Fig. 74). 
Many of its followers became fanatics who, believing that 
they thus obtained future happiness, willingly died if they 
could die killing a Christian. 

The Christian religion, the common belief in America 
and most of Europe, has spread slowly, but it now num- 




Fig. 74. 

Diagram to show the distribution of religions. So small a map is of course 
only true in general — for example, it must omit many of the small sections 
where Christian missionaries have made converts. 



bers about 440,000,000 followers. Its success, however, 
must not be measured by numbers alone ; for Christians 
make up most of the really civilized people of the world 
(Fig. 74). It is no accident that this is so, for Christi- 
anity has been one of the chief factors in making civili- 
zation possible. 

Religious belief has had much to do with inventions 
and the growth of industry. The Chinese, for example, 



THE HUMAN RACE 95 

have long opposed new inventions because their ancestor 
worship cultivated undue reverence for past customs ; 
also they have been unwilling to dig into the ground, for 
fear of disturbing the evil spirits that are supposed to 
dwell there. Partly for such reasons, our study of geog- 
raphy is chiefly concerned with Christian countries ; for 
there we find the most varied and extensive uses of the 
earth in the service of man. 



Questions. — (1) Tell about the Ethiopians ; their characteristics 
and distribution. (2) Do the same for the American Indians. 
(3) Mongolians. (4) Caucasians. (5) Give reasons for" the greater 
advance of the Caucasians. (6) What is believed about the early 
development of civilization ? (7) How is food obtained by natural 
races? (8) Tell about the development of agriculture. (9) Of graz- 
ing. (10) What is the effect of the mixture of farming and nomadic 
races? (11) What influence has the development of fishing had upon 
civilization? (12) In what kind of regions has the greatest advance 
of mankind taken place? Why? (13) How do natural races secure 
shelter? Give examples. (14) What influences aid in the selection 
of sites for homes ? For towns and cities ? (15) What materials 
are employed in clothing? (16) What is known about the origin 
of speech and written language ? (17) Give examples of early 
inventions. (18) What inventions have been especially important? 
(19) Tell about the simplest forms of government. (20) The more 
advanced forms. Give examples. (21) Tell about the development 
of religion. (22) Give some facts about Buddhism and Brahminism; 
Jewish religion ; Mohammedanism ; Christianity. 

Suggestions. — (1) What members of the divisions of mankind 
— other than whites — have you seen in your own neighborhood? 
(2) What different nationalities of whites ? (3) Find pictures illus- 
trating human life in the various zones. (4) Help to make a collection 
of pictures for the school to illustrate the various forms of shelter 
and clothing. Also find such pictures in this book. (5) Find some 
one who has specimens of primitive implements, as Indian arrow- 
heads, and examine them. (6) Find out something about the ways 
in which savage races ornament their clothing and person. 



Paet II (Section VIII) 
SOUTH AMERICA 

Map Questions (Fig. 75). — (1) In what zones does South America 
lie ? (2) What would you expect the climate to be in the northern part ? 
In the central part? In the southern part? (3) During what months 
does winter come in the extreme south? (4) What large rivers drain 
the continent? (5) Do you find any lakes? (6) To what extent is 
the coast line irregular? (7) Draw an outline map and locate upon 
it the mountains and rivers. Add the boundary lines of the principal 
countries. (8) On Figure 75 are there many islands? Where are most 
of them? (9) Find Cape Horn. It is south of what island? What 
strait separates this island from the mainland? (10) Which country 
has most railways? What does this indicate about the people? (11) In 
what zone is that country? How may the climate have influenced the 
building of railways? 

Introductory Sections 

Physiography. — North and South America resemble 
each other in several respects. The former is triangular 
in shape and has its main highland masses on the two 
sides. What are their names ? The western mountains 
are the younger and loftier, and they have many volcanic 
cones. They occupy a great breadth of country, the west- 
ernmost, or Coast Ranges, rising from the very shores of 
the Pacific. Between the extensive highlands on the two 
sides of the continent are low plains stretching from the 
Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. 

South America is likewise triangular in shape, broad at 
the north and tapering toward the south, and its princi- 
pal highlands are on the two sides (Fig. 76). Those 
on the west, the Andes (Fig. 77), form one of the 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 



97 




Fig. 76. 

Relief map of South America. In what portion are the highlands ? Which 
are highest? Locate the lowlands. 



98 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 



loftiest mountain systems in the world, and between the 
ranges are included deep valleys and lofty plateaus. 
Throughout the entire length of the continent these 
mountains, rising from the very seacoast, extend inland 
for a distance of many miles. 

Many of the highest peaks of the Andes are volcanic cones. 
One of them, Aconcagua, in Chile, reaches an elevation of nearly 




Fig. 77. 
A view in one of the higher valleys of the lofty Andes. 



twenty -three thousand feet, and is one of the loftiest peaks in 
the world. Some of the volcanoes are still active, and in a num- 
ber of cases the eruptions have been terribly violent. Frequent 
and destructive earthquake shocks have also been experienced 
in this region ; for the Andes are still rising, and as the rocks 
move they often break and cause the earth to tremble. 

1 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 99 

On the eastern side of South America the most ex- 
tensive highlands are those in eastern Brazil (Fig. 76). 
This region, like New England, consists of ancient rocks, 
rising in the form of high hills and low mountains. The 
highest point is a little over ten thousand feet. The 
Guiana highland (Fig. 76), between the Amazon and 
Orinoco rivers, resembles the upland of Brazil and may be 
considered a part of it, although separated from it by the 
Amazon lowland. The remainder of the continent is low- 
land (Fig. 76) and mainly a vast plain extending from 
southern Argentina to the Caribbean Sea. 

In South America, as in North America, the growth of 
mountains has raised the two sides of the continent and left 
a depression into which the sea once entered. But waste from 
the mountains, washed down by rain and rivers, has filled 
this depression and built the broad plains that are now there. 
By uplift these plains have been elevated to form dry land. 

In two important respects North and South America are 
unlike in physiography. In the first place, their large 
rivers flow in different directions. Describe from memory 
the three or four principal river systems of North America. 
Make a sketch of the three largest rivers of South America. 
One of these is the largest in the world. Which is it ? 
Which one most nearly corresponds to the Mississippi in 
position and direction of flow ? 

A second difference between the two continents is in 
regard to their coast lines. It will be remembered that 
much of the North American coast has been made irreg- 
ular by the sinking of the land. Much of the South 
American coast, on the other hand, has been rising. In 
the former case, many fine harbors were formed ; in the 
latter, the coast line is made straight because the level sea 
LofC. 



100 SOUTH AMERICA 

bottom is being raised. Notice how very regular is most 
of the western coast of South America. It is the most 
regular coast line of long extent in the world ; for a dis- 
tance of three thousand miles there is a general absence 
of good natural harbors. What effect must this have 
upon the development of the continent ? 

Climate. — A large portion of South America lies in the 
tropical zone and consequently has a hot climate. Where 
does the Tropic of Capricorn cross the continent ? The 
portion south of this tropic reaches into the south temper- 
ate zone, and its climate, therefore, resembles that of the 
United States. What countries of South America are 
partly or wholly in the temperate zone? During what 
months do they have summer ? What effect on tempera- 
ture are their north winds likely to have ? 

Of coarse the mountains must cause different kinds of climate 
in each of these zones. For instance, in Ecuador, where the 
equator crosses the Andes, the temperature at the base of the 
mountains near sea level is high throughout the year; in other 
words, there is perpetual summer. Higher up the mountain 
sides the climate is cooler and there is perpetual spring. Still 
higher up, the temperature is so low that snow remains on the 
ground throughout the year (Fig. 77). There, in a distance of 
a few miles, are found dense tropical forests (Figs. 40 and 
80), fields where the products of temperate latitudes are raised, 
and barren, frigid mountain peaks on which only the hardiest 
of plants can grow (Fig. 78). 

The winds, together with the highlands, are the key to 
the rainfall. On the map (Fig. 25) it is seen that the 
belt of calms extends across the continent in the neigh- 
borhood of the equator. North of this belt the northeast 
trade winds blow (Fig. 25), while south of it is the zone 
of southeast trade winds. Still farther south are the 




Fig. 78. 

A diagram to illustrate change in vegetation with elevation. What do you see 
in the picture? In order to hring all this within a single view, the slope 
has been exaggerated and the horizontal distance shortened. It might be 
a hundred miles from the foreground to the base of the mountains. 



102 



SOUTH AMERICA 



horse latitudes, and then come the prevailing westerlies 
(Fig. 25), which blow across the southern end of the 
continent. 

We may therefore expect heavy rainfall in the vicinity 
of the equator (Fig. 26), where the air is constantly ris- 
ing. The northern coast must also receive abundant 
rains (Fig. 26) because the trade winds come from the 
ocean and are forced to rise in passing over the slopes. 




A view on the arid plateau of Bolivia — a train of alpacas is crossing here. 



The highlands in eastern Brazil must likewise be well 
watered by the vapor-laden southeast trades (Fig. 26). 
Of course, these winds lose much of their moisture in 
travelling across the continent, but on approaching the 
Andes they are forced to a still greater height ; accord- 
ingly, the eastern side of these ranges is wet by frequent 
rains (Fig. 26). 

South of the belt of calms, both in the trade- wind and 
horse latitude belts, the western slopes and the valleys of 
the Andes (Fig. 26) are far too arid for agriculture with- 



CLIMATE 103 

out irrigation. In this region large areas are veritable des- 
erts. This arid condition is due to the influence of the 
mountains, which interfere with the trade winds so that the 
prevailing winds are from the south, and therefore paral- 
lel to the coast (Fig. 25). Since these winds are blowing 
toward the equator, and therefore becoming steadily 
warmer, they do not give up their moisture and form 
rain. Thus there are deserts on the very coast. 

Farther south the influence of the prevailing westerlies 
is felt. In this part of the continent, therefore, it is the 
western side that receives the rain, while the eastern part 
is dry (Fig. 29). In rising over the land these winds 
cause abundant rainfall in southern Chile ; but, being 
robbed of their vapor as they cross the mountains, they 
descend as dry winds upon the plains of Patagonia. With 
what portion of the United States may the climate of this 
region be compared '? 

From the above we see that while most of South Amer- 
ica is well supplied with rain, two extensive areas on 
opposite sides of the Andes are arid. Locate them 
(Fig. 29). 

The heavy rain in the tropical section of the continent sup- 
plies the three great rivers with an abundance of water, and 
encourages a rank growth of tropical vegetation. But each 
year, as the season changes, the belts of rainfall migrate north- 
ward and southward (Figs. 31 and 32). Therefore on each side 
of the equator is a belt where the rainfall varies with the season, 
being dry at one time of year and well watered in the opposite 
season. In the rainy season the rivers are flooded, and vegeta- 
tion grows profusely ; but with the dry season the streams 
shrink in size, and the plains become dry and parched. It is 
because of this dry period that there are open savannas both 
north and south of the equatorial forest. Trees cannot survive 



104 



SOUTH AMERICA 



the drought ; but grass is able to mature its seeds during the 
rainy season, then die down to the ground and remain dormant 
until the next period of rains. 

Plant Life. — In the warm, rainy belt the great humid- 
ity and high temperature are favorable to an extraordi- 




Tropical vegetation in the damp lowlands of Ecuador, where there are heavy 
equatorial rains. The boats are dugouts, that is, logs hollowed out iu boat 
form by the uatives. 



nary growth of plant life (Figs. 40 and 80). So dense are 
the vast jungles of the Amazon that travel through them 
is almost impossible (p. 113) ; and the difficulties in the way 
of clearing the forest are so serious that immense areas have 
never been settled by other than savage Indians. In fact, 
much of this forest wilderness has never been explored. 

In the desert of the west coast, on the other hand, plant 
life is very scanty (Fig. 79). There are some parts, for 
instance the desert of Atacama in northern Chile, where, 



PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE 105 

as in other arid sections of the world, there is almost no 
life of any kind. 

The rainy belt and the desert illustrate the two extremes 
of abundance and scarcity of life. But there are other 
conditions in South America. For example, the llanos of 
the Orinoco valley and the campos of Brazil are broad 
tracts of treeless plains, or savannas. Why? (see p. 55). 
What is the cause of the treeless pampas of Argentina ? 
(p. 60). With what portion of the United States may 
they be compared ? 

In those sections where the climate is cool and the rain- 
fall moderate, as on the mountain slopes and in the south 
temperate zone, the land is forest covered ; but the for- 
ests are much more open than the tropical jungle. The 
extreme southern part of the continent has a climate so 
cold (Fig. 108) that the plants become dwarfed, as is the 
case near the tree line in northern Canada. 

Animal Life. — In the tropical forest there is a great variety 
of tree-dwelling animals, among which are many insects and. 
beautiful birds. Among the larger animals may be mentioned 
the fruit-eating monkey, the fierce jaguar (Fig. 81), which preys 
upon other animals, and the sloth (Fig. 81), a creature which 
even sleeps suspended, back downward, from the branches of 
the trees. There are also many reptiles, including serpents 
and the iguana (Fig. 81), a tree lizard often several feet in 
length. Some of the serpents are small and poisonous ; others, 
like the boa constrictor (Fig. 81), are large and powerful 
enough to crush a deer in their coils. The boa, coiled among 
the trees awaiting its prey, resembles a vine. 

The beautiful butterflies and ants are most noticeable among 
the insects. Some of the ants live in the ground, others in 
decayed vegetation, and many of them are terrible pests. 
Among the most interesting insects are the termites, commonly 
called white ants, which live in colonies, and build houses of 




LLAMA 



ARMADILLO. 



Fig. 81. 
Some of the animals of South America, 



THE PEOPLE 107 

earth. With so many insects there are naturally numerous 
species of insect eaters. One of the most interesting of these 
is the ant-eater (Fig. 81), whose long claws are adapted to 
digging the ants from their earthy or woody dwelling places, 
while its sharp-pointed snout and long tongue aid it in finding 
and devouring its food. 

Besides these animals there is the tapir (Fig. 81), five or six 
feet in length, which wanders about at night, feeding along the 
watercourses ; and the armadillo (Fig. 81), a burrowing ani- 
mal protected by an armor. When attacked by an enemy, the 
armadillo rolls itself into a ball, enclosing its soft under parts. 
In the river waters and swamps are fishes, turtles, and alliga- 
tors (Fig. 81). The turtle eggs and fish are among the princi- 
pal foods for the forest Indians. Here also is found the 
manatee (Fig. 81), or sea cow, a mammal that has become 
adapted to life in the water. It lives both in fresh and salt 
water and ascends the Amazon even as far as Ecuador. 

On the open plains, herds of deer roam about, and also the rhea 
(Fig. 81) — often called the American ostrich — one of the few 
large running birds (p. 69). It lives on the open plains, as in 
Patagonia, where are also found herds of guanaco, a kind of 
wild llama. 

Among the crags and peaks of the Andes dwells the condor 
(Fig. 81), the largest of the flying birds — so large that it kills 
and carries off small deer. In the mountain valleys live the 
llama (Fig. 81) and its allies, the vicuna and alpaca, both wild 
and domesticated (Figs. 50, 79, and 105). Like other mountain 
dwellers the llama is sure-footed on the rocks, and is thus of great 
use as a beast of burden ; and the cold climate causes it to have 
a thick coat of wool which is of value to man. Because of its 
usefulness the llama is sometimes called the American camel. 

The People. — When South America was discovered by 
Columbus, it was inhabited solely by red men. Of these 
many were typical savages ; and even at the present day 
some of the forest Indians are savages (Figs. 56 and 61), 



108 



SOUTH AMERICA 




living solely upon fish, game, and the abundant fruits. It 
is still unsafe for white men to go among them, and indeed 

there are forest tribes 
which still practise canni- 
balism (Fig. 82). 

Along the coast and 
some of the larger rivers 
the red men found by the 
early explorers were more 
advanced. Like most of 
the North American In- 
dians, they were in the 
lower stages of barbarism. 
In a crude way they cul- 
tivated the soil and manu- 
factured a few simple 
implements. Many In- 
dians in the more remote 
districts still live in this primitive way, though large 
numbers have mixed with the white settlers and adopted 
their customs. 

But among the Andes, especially in Peru, Bolivia, and 
Ecuador, the Spanish explorers found tribes of Indians, 
under control of the Incas, who had developed far beyond 
their neighbors. Indeed, like the Pueblo and Aztec 
Indians of North America, they had reached the early 
stages of civilization. The temperate climate of their 
mountain valley homes favored advance. And the pro- 
tection from the inroads of their more savage neighbors, 
which the arid country and mountain barriers offered, gave 
them the opportunity to develop arts and to advance in 
other ways. 



Fig. 82. 

A caunibal girl from the tropical forest of 
Peru. 



THE PEOPLE 



109 



By the aid of irrigation the Incas tilled the soil, cultivating 
the potato, corn, and Peruvian cotton, all of which they had 
improved from 
wild plants. 
They domesti- 
cated the llama 
and alpaca (Figs. 
50, 79, 81, and 
105) for their 
wool (Fig. 83) 
and for use as 
beasts of burden 
and work animals 
on the farm. 
They had well- 
organized armies, 
built roads (Fig. 
84), and had a 
rude postal and 
express system 
by swift runners. 
Although the In- 
cas had not in- 
vented writing, 
they kept records 
by means of 
knotted strings. 
Their e m p i r e, 
which extended 
for more than two thousand miles along the Andes, and from 
the Pacific to the trackless forests of the Amazon, was governed 
by a powerful chief whose capital was Cuzco in Peru. All 
together the stage of advancement reached by these red men 
was wonderful (see also p. 137). 

The Spanish, encouraged by the discovery of rich de- 
posits of gold and silver, seized almost all of South 




Fig. 83. 
Some of the cloth and other articles made by the Incas. 



110 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 



America excepting Brazil, which was settled by the Por- 
tuguese. They treated the aborigines with great cruelty, 
especially the Incas, whom they robbed of their treasures 
and reduced to slavery. As in North America, the Span- 
iards intermarried freely with the Indians, so that the 
present inhabitants of South America are to a large extent 
of mixed blood. The introduction of negro slaves has 
led to a still greater mixture of peoples. Therefore, while 




Fig. 84. 
A bridge made by the Incas. 

there are still pure-blooded Indians and negroes, and also 
pure-blooded white men, especially Spanish and Portu- 
guese, the greater number of the South Americans are a 
mixture of two or more of these very different races. 
This fact is one of the main reasons for the unstable gov- 
ernments of some of the South American countries. 

Spain maintained her control in South America for 
fully three hundred years. But in the early part of the 



THE PEOPLE 



111 



nineteenth century the colonies revolted and established 
themselves as independent republics, modelled after the 
United States. 
They were led 
to fight for their 
independence 
partly because 
of the success of 
our own Revolu- 
tion, but chiefly 
because of op- 
pression by the 
Spaniards, who 
treated their 
colonies merely 
as sources of 
wealth. 

Brazil also 
became indepen- 
dent of Portu- 
gal, and, after 
being for a long 
time ruled by an 
emperor, estab- 
lished a repub- 
lican form of 
government in 1889. Of late there have been many im- 
migrants from European countries, especially from Ger- 
many and southern Europe. Special inducements have 
been offered to such colonists, and the recent development 
in portions of South America, particularly of Argentina and 
southern Brazil, has been partly due to these immigrants. 




SOUTH AMERICA, 
ty or Population. 

Less than 1 per Square Mile. 

£±Z3 1-25 

ES^ 25-125 



Fig. 85. 



112 SOUTH AMERICA 



Brazil 

Physiography and Climate. — This is the largest coun- 
try in South America. It is even larger than the United 
States without Alaska, and nearly as large as Europe. 
While reaching north of the equator on one side, it ex- 
tends into the south temperate zone on the other side. 
How many degrees of latitude does it include ? Since so 
large a part of Brazil is in the torrid zone and on the east- 
ern slope of the continent, its climate is not only warm 
but moist. Why the latter ? 

Eastern Brazil is a highland of ancient mountains worn 
down to the condition of hills and low mountains. Nu- 
merous streams drain this upland in various directions. 
Point out some of these and show where they empty 
(Fig. 75). Trace the divide between those flowing into 
the Amazon and Parana and those flowing into the At- 
lantic. What is the name of the largest river emptying 
directly into the Atlantic ? 

The northern third of Brazil is mainly a vast level 
plain, throughout most of its extent occupied by dense 
forest and drained by the Amazon. What is the condi- 
tion on the campos? Why? (p. 55). The rainfall in 
the Amazon valley is so heavy, and the slope of the land 
so gentle, that the Amazon and its larger tributaries are 
swollen to great breadth. At times of flood the rivers 
overflow the surrounding country and transform it to an 
immense swamp through which many branching channels 
extend. In places the Amazon is several miles in width, 
and resembles a great lake rather than a river. Boats are 
able to pass up the Amazon nearly to the base of the 



BRAZIL 



113 



Andes, a distance of twenty-two hundred miles from the 
seacoast. Some of the tributaries are also navigable. 
Along the route of navigation there are settlements, such 
as Manaos which is reached by ocean steamers ; but at 
a distance from 
the river there is 
nothing but an 
almost unknown 
wilderness. 

The Tropical 
Forest. — The A Bl- 
azon forest offers 
a typical illustra- 
tion of the tropi- 
cal forest (Fig. 
40) where plants, 
encouraged by the 
uniformly high 
temperature and 
great dampness, 
grow luxuriantly 
in the rich soil. 
Not only is the 
rainfall heavy, but 
evaporation is re- 
tarded by the 
dense vegetation, 
so that the forest 
is reeking with moisture. Consequently at night time, when 
the temperature falls, such heavy dews collect that the plants 
are wet by them as by a rain. 

In these woods there is occasionally a giant tree (Fig. 86) 
reaching to a height of from 180 to 200 feet and with a cir- 
cumference of from 20 to 40 feet, while the distance to the 
lower limbs may be 100 feet from the ground. Between these 









Wit v> "J 






~~~r^rr --Tr- = - ' 







Fig. 86. 

A scene in the tropical forest showing one of the giant 
trees from around which some of the undergrowth 
has been removed. 



114 



SOUTH AMERICA 



giant trees are smaller ones struggling to rise into the light, 
while in competition with them are shrubs, bushes, ferns, and 
many vines which twine about the tree trunks or hang from 
the lower limbs (Fig. 86). There are also epiphytes, or plants 
which, owing to the excessive moisture, are able to live cling- 
ing to others, with 

" ,■ ■■'■ '■■#& 



their roots in the 
air instead of the 
ground. Among 
the epiphytes are 
many beautiful 
orchids, including 
the vanilla, whose 
beans are of value 
in making per- 
fumes and flavor- 
ing extracts. 

One of the fea- 
tures of such a 
forest is the dense 
gloom and the 
silence, broken 
now and then by 
the crash of a fall- 
ing tree, or the sor- 
rowful notes of 
birds, or the fright- 
ful howling of 
monkeys, or perchance the shrill scream of an animal which 
has fallen prey to the boa (Fig. 81). Why might we expect 
the animals in large part to be tree dwellers ? 

To one whose home is in the temperate zone the tropical 
forest appears very strange, for the woods are much the same 
throughout the year. There is no time when all the trees send 
forth their leaves and blossoms ; nor is there a time when all 
the leaves change and fall to the ground. Some of the trees 
blossom throughout the year ; others have their blossoms at 




Fig. 87. 
Some of the Indians of tropical South America. No- 
tice the nose and lip ornaments. 



BRAZIL 115 

regular seasons ; thus flowers and fruit may be seen at all 
times of the year. 

Products of the Forest. — Among the trees of the tropi- 
cal forest are many useful kinds. Some produce gums, 
such as caoutchouc, from which rubber is made ; or edible 
fruits and nuts, or A^aluable timber and dyewoods. In 
fact, the name Brazil is derived from a word applied to a 
dyewood found in the Amazon forests. 

Many of the inhabitants near the rivers, who have par- 
tially adopted the customs of civilization, make long jour- 
neys into the forest to collect the products, both for their 
own use and for shipment down the Amazon. But the 
difficulties of travel, and the warmth and dampness of the 
climate, are opposed to much work. Therefore the re- 
sources of this part of Brazil are only partially developed. 

The natives still cultivate the manclioca, which was one of 
their principal sources of food when white men appeared. 
This plant has beneath the soil an enlargement of the root 
which in shape resembles a long sweet potato. A dish of dry 
meal, or farina, made from the mandioca is commonly seen on 
Brazilian tables, and it is often stewed with beans. Mandioca 
bears much the same relation to these people that wheat bears 
to those who live in temperate climates. It is from this plant 
that tapioca is made. 

The Indians are also engaged in obtaining rubber, a product 
of immense importance because of its many uses, for example, 
as a packing around the valves of machinery, and as an insu- 
lator around wires and cables. Name other uses of rubber. 

When gathering rubber, the natives encamp in the forest in 
lightly built huts (Fig. 88). Various paths through the dense 
undergrowth lead from these huts to the rubber trees which 
are scattered here and there. Each collector makes holes in 
the bark and inserts tubes of clay which carry the sap to bam- 
boo dishes. Collecting the dishes from a number of trees, the 



116 



SOUTH AMERICA 




native returns to his hut and pours the contents into a larger 
dish, perhaps the shell of a large turtle. 

The sap must then be subjected to a process of smoking, for 
if left standing too long the resin in it separates, and it is 
spoiled. As a result of the smoking, which is clone by burn- 
ing the nuts of a palm, the milky sap assumes a grayish yellow 

color, and becomes 



firm. First one 
layer of sap is at- 
tached to a shovel 
and smoked ; then 
another layer is 
added and smoked ; 
and this is repeated 
until the coat- 
ing of rubber on 
each side of the 
shovel is about 
eight inches thick. 
It is then cut off 
and hung in the sun to dry, after which it is ready for shipment 
down the river to Paka ; hence the name, Para rubber. Find 
this city on Figure 75. Rubber ranks next to coffee as an 
export from Brazil, and one of the principal markets for it 
is the United States. 

Coffee Raising. — The coffee tree is a native of Abys- 
sinia in Africa. It was introduced into Brazil in the 
eighteenth century, and has proved so successful that 
Brazil now produces more than one-half of all the coffee 
raised in the world. Coffee is cultivated all the way 
from southern Brazil to the Amazon, and it is estimated 
that there are fully five hundred million coffee trees in 
Brazil alone. 

Coffee raising requires great care and expense. The plant 
must have a warm climate. It cannot stand extreme heat 



Fig. 88. 
An Indian hut on the Amazon. 



BRAZIL 117 

or frost. The soil must be fertile, and the plant must be 
protected from winds. It grows best at altitudes of from fif- 
teen hundred to forty-five hundred feet. First, the seeds are 
planted in nurseries ; then, after twelve or eighteen months, 
they are set out in rows from five to eight feet apart. By care- 
ful pruning, the height of the trees is kept at about eight feet. 
The full crop is obtained in the sixth year, and the tree bears 
well until the twentieth year, each tree producing from thirty . 
to forty pounds a year. 

The small white flower grows in clusters, and the fruit, which 
is also clustered, looks somewhat like a medium-sized cherry. 
Inside of the husk are two kernels with the flat faces together. 
The berries are picked, dried in the sun, and hulled by machin- 
ery, the picking being done from April to September. After 
being sorted in the cities the coffee is shipped in bags. For- 
merly most of the Brazilian coffee left the port of Rio de 
Janeiro, but now more than half of it is sent from Santos. 
Coffee is the principal export of Brazil, and much of it comes 
to the United States. 

Other Industries in Brazil. — On the highlands of Brazil, 
where coffee raising is carried on, other crops are also 
produced, such as cotton, sugar, tobacco, fruit, and corn. 
Much cocoa is cultivated in the tropical section, and in 
the extreme south many cattle are raised. The rocks of the 
highlands have produced some valuable minerals, especially 
gold and diamonds. Indeed, at one time, the southern 
part of Brazil was the principal diamond-producing region 
in the world. Both coal and iron are also present, though 
they are not yet mined. 

Cities. — The capital and largest city of the republic is 
Rio de Janeiro, a city about as large as Boston, and the 
second in size in South America. It is situated upon a fine 
harbor (Fig. 89) and is surrounded by excellent farming 
country and coffee plantations. Several other Brazilian 






118 



SOUTH AMERICA 



cities are seaports connected with the interior by short 
railway lines which bring the coffee and other products 
for shipment. The most important are Bahia, Santos, 
the seaport of Sao Paulo, and Pernambtjco, the chief 
port for the export of sugar and cotton. Compare the size 
of each of these with some city in the United States (Tables 




Fig. 89. 
A part of the city and harbor of Rio de Janeiro. 

just before Index). On the Para River, near the mouth of 
the Amazon, and connected with it by a branch of the river, 
is Para, from which most of the rubber, vanilla, and other 
products from the Amazon forest are shipped to America 
and Europe. 

Argentina 

Physiography and Climate. — This is by far the most 
advanced of South American countries, and the reasons 



ARGENTINA 



119 



are not difficult to understand. In the first place, Argen- 
tina extends from just within the torrid zone to the ex- 
treme southern end of South America. Thus the country 
is for the most part within the temperate zone, whose cli- 
mate is favorable to the development of energetic people. 
Also the range of climate, from arid to rainy (Fig. 26) 
and from tropical to temperate, insures a considerable 
range of products. A second reason for rapid advance- 
ment is the fact that, while there are mountains in the 
west, the re- 
mainder of the 
country is 
largely one vast 
expanse of pam- 
pas (Fig. 90). 
These o p e n, 
treeless plains 
have made it 
easy for settlers 
to move about 

and to carry on the industries of farming and ranching. 
This is quite in contrast to the unfavorable conditions in 
the Amazon valley ; but it may be compared with the ease 
of settlement which the plains and prairies of the United 
States have afforded. 

Such favorable conditions have served to attract many 
immigrants from Europe, and there is, therefore, a larger 
percentage of pure-blooded whites here than in other 
parts of South America. Largely for this reason the 
government of Argentina is decidedly better than that 
in most South American countries. 

Cattle Raising. — The open plains are well adapted 




Fig. 90. 
On the pampas of Argentina. 



120 



SOUTH AMERICA 



to ranching, and it is estimated that there are nearly one 
hundred million sheep and twenty-five million cattle in 
this country. Stock raising in Argentina differs in some 
respects from ranching in the United States. 

In the latter country the cattle usually roam at large, some- 
times straying over a hundred miles from home in their search 
for grass or for protection against storms. This makes necessary 
two round-ups every year, one in May or June, for branding 









- 












~'"" — ' ' ^:: !, : - : 


^isij 


■Jr\-'- T*T* 


\\_ 


,,^^W^' fvW- 




sJkt^sS-? 


S.TLX—f-**'- 








'" - 


j~~~^HI 


IHHI 





Fig. 91. 
On the pampas of Argentina. 

the calves and driving the stock back nearer the ranch house ; 
and the other, early in the fall, for collecting the steers that 
are to be shipped to market. 

In the United States sheep are likewise allowed to graze 
upon the " range " where there are no fences. They, however, 
are under the care of a herder who selects some spot near 
water for a camp, returning to shelter at night ; and when the 
grass is eaten in one place, the camp is moved to a new centre. 

While stock raising in some parts of Argentina is similar to 
that in the United States, the most advanced methods employed 
may be illustrated by the following brief description of one of 
the large cattle ranches. 



ARGENTINA 121 

This ranch contains over 74,000 acres, which are divided 
into three sections, each surrounded by wire fence. Each sec- 
tion is subdivided into smaller tracts by means of wire fences, 
the cost of fencing being fully as great as the original cost of 
the land. There are 22,000 head of cattle and 60,000 sheep 
divided into groups of from 4000 to 5000 head, each group 
being kept in one of the enclosures. They are thus prevented 
from straying, and require so little care that one man is able 
to take charge of a group. 

All the animals are of ihe best breeds, and four hundred fine 
Durham cows are kept for the use of their milk in cheese manu- 
facture. The chief profit of the ranch comes from the wool 
and skins of the sheep and from the sale of fat steers, usually 
sold when two years old. Many of the largest cattle and sheep 
ranches are owned by Englishmen and Scotchmen. 

Formerly the herds roamed over the plains, feeding on gov- 
ernment land, as is the custom in the United States. The 
government of Argentina, however, recognizing that ranching 
would be more successful if the cattle owners controlled large 
bodies of land, has been in the habit of selling large tracts to 
the ranchmen, who after purchase fence in their land. In 
western United States, on the other hand, ranchmen cannot 
obtain large tracts of government land because of the laws 
which restrict its sale to small blocks. But some of our west- 
ern land, owned by the railways, can be bought in large tracts, 
and there the custom is growing to purchase and fence land, 
introduce better stock, and care for it, as in Argentina. 

Farming. — The climate and soil in many parts of 
Argentina are favorable to agriculture. In the warm 
northern portion sugar-cane, coffee, and tobacco are 
produced ; in the more temperate part, where the rain- 
fall is sufficient, grains are raised and alfalfa for hay. 
There is also much fruit raising, especially grapes, from 
which wine and. raisins are made. 

Wheat is the most important agricultural product, the 



122 SOUTH AMERICA 

value of the crop being fully $50,000,000 a year, making 
the Argentine plains one of the great wheat-producing 
sections of the world. The climate is favorable, the soil 
fertile, and the land level or gently rolling, as in Minne- 
sota and the Dakotas. Agriculture in the south is pro- 
hibited by the cold ; but sheep raising is carried on even 
in Patagonia and on the stormy islands beyond the Strait 
of Magellan. 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — Besides the industries 
mentioned above, there is some lumbering and mining in 
the mountainous portion. But although the words Argen- 
tina and Plata mean silver, their use as proper names 
comes from the fact that the natives wore silver orna- 
ments rather than from any abundance of the white metal 
in Argentina. 

In the large cities there is considerable manufacturing, 
largely connected with the raw products of the country, 
as, for instance, dairying, woollen mills, flour, sugar, wine, 
and cotton manufacturing, the preparation of hides, etc. 
Nevertheless, a large part of the raw products is sent 
abroad, particularly wool, sheepskins, hides, wheat, corn, 
and meat. On the other hand, machinery, cloth, and other 
manufactured articles must be imported. 

With such a development of the resources it is natural 
that there should be means of ready transportation. The 
broad Parana River, which empties into the Plata estuary, 
offers extensive water connection with the interior ; and 
railways ramify the well-settled portions of the country, 
connecting all the important cities. In fact, because of the 
superior development of Argentina there are more rail- 
ways here than in any other South American country. In 
resources, industrial development, government, and educa- 



URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY 



123 



ticmal system Argentina, of all the South American coun- 
tries, bears the closest resemblance to the United States. 

Cities. — By far the most important city is Buenos 
Aires, which is the largest city in South America, and 
considerably larger than St. Louis in the United States. 
There is a certain resemblance between Buenos Aires and 
New York, the metropolis of North America. 

Each is situated on a good harbor on an estuary, and each 
has water connection with a very productive interior having a 
temperate climate. Moreover, from various parts of the inte- 
rior, in each case, railway lines converge toward the seaport, 
while steamship lines extend to all quarters of the globe. New 
York, however, is a gateway to a much larger and more varied 
country, and one of greater resources. In addition, New York 
has been developed for a longer time. Consequently it is much 
larger than Buenos Aires. 

Buenos Aires is a biisy and rapidly growing city with much 
manufacturing, especially flour milling, brewing, and the can- 
ning and preserving of meat. It also has an extensive commerce. 
Just below the city, on the Plata estuary, is the seaport of La 
Plata; and upstream, on the Parana, is the rapidly growing 
city of Bosario, which is an important railway centre as well 
as a river port. In the interior are a number of towns and 
cities, among which the railway centre Cordoba is the largest. 



Uruguay and Paraguay 

Uruguay. — Like so much of Argentina this is a region 
of plains, well watered and excellently adapted to agricul- 
ture. Naturally, therefore, cattle and sheep raising are im- 
portant industries. But although the climate and soil are 
favorable to the same crops that thrive in northern Argen- 
tina, there has been little progress in agriculture. Indeed, 



124 SOUTH AMERICA 

quite in contrast to its neighbor Argentina, this country 
is but slightly developed. The government is very bad 
indeed, for a few men control the army and make and 
unmake presidents almost at will. 

The principal products of Uruguay are those connected 
with cattle and sheep; namely, dried beef, corned beef, ox 
tongues, hides, tallow, horns, sheepskins, and wool. The 
famous Liebig extract of beef is made in this country. 



Hfffe 




Fig. 92. 

Ranch houses on the plains of Uruguay. 

The company disposes of more than one thousand cattle 
a day during the summer months, and exports tongues, 
canned meats, beef extracts, and other products, to the 
value of $15,000,000 a year. 

The capital and largest city is the seaport of Monte- 
video, situated at one end of a semicircular bay on the 
Plata estuary. 

Paraguay. — Like Bolivia this little country is without 
a seacoast, though it has access to the sea by way of the 
Parana River. It is a region of hills and plains covered 
with forests in part, but with many tracts of pasture land 
upon which large herds of cattle feed. The climate is hot 
and dry, with most of the hot winds from the north. For- 



THE QUI AN AS 125 

tunately most of the rain falls during the hot summer 
when the ocean winds blow toward the heated land. 

The agricultural products are those of the warm tem- 
perate and tropical zones, including tobacco, rice, sugar- 
cane, and oranges, while from the forests rubber, dyewoods, 
and valuable timber are obtained. There is but one rail- 
way which connects the capital, Asuncion, with Monte- 
video on the sea. 

A peculiar product, and the principal export of this country, 
is yerba matt, or Paraguay tea. Although not used as exten- 
sively as our tea, which comes mainly from China and Japan, 
it is very popular in South America, where its use was learned 
from the red men. The tea is made by roasting and pulveriz- 
ing the leaves of a wild holly, which, however, has lately been 
cultivated. South Americans drink this tea at their meals, 
and have become addicted to its use much as other people have 
to tea and coffee. Like tea and coffee, it is a stimulant, being 
considered very refreshing when taken by those fatigued. 

The Guianas and Venezuela 

The Guianas. — North of Brazil are three small coun- 
tries, the only portions of the South American continent 
now under control of European nations. They belong to 
Great Britain, Holland, and France, respectively. Gold 
is obtained in each of the Guianas, although the develop- 
ment in this direction has gone little farther than the 
washing of alluvial gravels. 

In these small countries a large part of the surface is 
still a forest wilderness inhabited chiefly by Indians who 
have little contact with white men. This tropical forest, 
like that of the Amazon, which it closely resembles, sup- 
plies rubber and valuable timber ; but its resources are 



126 



SOUTH AMERICA 



only slightly developed. Near the coast, however, there 
is a strip of cultivated land from which is obtained sugar- 
cane, bananas, cotton, and a few other products. Of late, 
especially in Dutch Guiana, attention has been turned to 
the production of cocoa and coffee. 

The Guianas are so slightly developed that there is but 
one short railway, and in most sections almost no roads. 




Fig. 93. 
A cocoanut grove on the northern coast of South America. 



There are practically no exports except sugar, molasses, 
and rum — all made from sugar-cane. Flour, clothing, 
and other manufactured articles are imported. 

British Guiana once belonged to the Dutch, who, coming 
from the diked lands of Holland, imitated the conditions of 
their mother country by building dikes to shut out the sea 
from an extensive mangrove swamp, which they transformed 
to tillable land. Even the capital, Georgetown, is below the 
high-water mark. It is protected from the sea by a stone wall, 
and drained by means of steam pumps and by canals which 
open at low tide. 

Dutch Guiana, once called Surinam, was originally settled by 
the British; but after the war with Holland, in 1667, it was 



VENEZUELA 



127 



turned over to the Dutch in exchange for New York. It is 
easy to see that the Dutch did not get the better of the bargain. 
What is the capital of this colony ? 

French Guiana is even less developed than the other Guianas. 
The fact that it has been used as a penal colony for French 
convicts has given it a bad reputation and aided in preventing its 
settlement. Name its capital. 

Venezuela. 1 — This country includes one of the spurs 
of the Andes and also a portion of the Guiana highland. 




Fig. 91. 

The lower Orinoco. Notice how broad it is and how deep it must be to float 
the large United States cruiser. Yet this picture is taken at Ciudad 
Bolivar, far up the river. Find it on the map, Fig. 75. 

But a large part of Venezuela is occupied by the broad 
plains of the Orinoco valley. Some of these plains, the 
treeless llanos (p. 55), are the seat of extensive cattle 
raising, as in the case of the pampas of Argentina. In 
parts of Venezuela, for example upon the mountain slopes, 
are vast forests which produce valuable dyewoods and 

1 This name, which means " little Venice," was applied to the country 
because, when first visited in 1199, white men found an Indian village 
built on piles or posts in the water along the shores of Lake Maracaibo. 



128 



SOUTH AMERICA 



rubber. Among the mountains also are found valuable 
mineral deposits, especially gold. 

There is some agriculture. Hardy crops, like po- 
tatoes, beans, and barley, are raised even at altitudes of 
eight thousand feet ; but below five thousand feet are 
found such semi-tropical and tropical products as sugar- 
cane, bananas, cocoa, and coffee (Fig. 95). The latter is 




Fig. 95. 
Drying coffee at Caracas. The dark-colored portion is covered with coffee 



the chief export ; in fact, Venezuela is one of the leading 
coffee-producing sections of South America. 

The capital, Caracas (Fig. 96), five or six miles from 
the sea, is situated upon a highland over three thousand 
feet above sea level. It is connected with its ports by a 
short railway line which winds about in its descent to the 
sea. 

In 1812 Caracas was visited by one of the most terrible 
earthquakes ever recorded. Being Ascension Day, a great 
part of the population was at church. The first shock caused 



TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 



129 



the bell to toll, but after all clanger was thought past, there 
came a terrible subterranean noise, resembling the rolling of 
thunder, but louder and longer than thunder is commonly 
heard. Then came a shaking of the earth so tremendous that 
churches and houses were overthrown and the inhabitants 
buried beneath their ruins. On that day fully twelve thou- 




Fig. 96. 
The city of Caracas, nestled among the mountains. 

sand persons perished. People were told that it was sent as 
a punishment for revolting from the rule of Spain. 



Tropical Andean Countries 

Points of Resemblance. — These countries, Colombia, 
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, are all crossed by the lofty 
Andes and are therefore mountainous. Each of them ex- 
tends eastward beyond the mountains, to the plains of the 
upper Amazon and Orinoco valleys. In Colombia these 
plains include a portion of the llanos. Why then are they 
treeless? (p. 55). Elsewhere the plains are covered with 
a dense tropical forest (Figs. 40, 86, and 97), resembling 
that of the Amazon in density of plant growth and in 
human inhabitants. What can you tell about it then ? 

There is, of course, great variety of climate in this sec- 



130 



SOUTH AMERICA 



tion. Tropical heat prevails throughout the lowlands 
(Fig. 80) ; but the heavy rainfall near the equator con- 
trasts strikingly with the arid conditions of southern Peru 




Building houses in a clearing 



Fig. 97. 

in the forest of Peru on the eastern side of the 
Andes. 



and northern Chile, which lie in the belt of southeast 
trades (p. 34). 

The elevation due to mountains and plateaus also causes dif- 
ferences in climate (p. 100). This may be illustrated by the 
vegetation. Up to an altitude of three thousand to four thou- 
sand feet, bananas, sugar-cane, cocoa, and other plants of hot 
climates flourish. Above this, to an elevation of six or seven 
thousand feet, the cooler climate permits the growth of to- 
bacco, corn, and coffee. From this height up to about ten thou- 



TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 131 

sand feet, wheat and our northern vegetables and fruits do 
well ; but above ten thousand feet the bleak mountain peaks 
are too cold for farming. There is therefore a great variety of 
farm products in the western part of South America. 

The fact that this section is so mountainous furnishes 
an explanation of its importance in the production of 
minerals. Both gold and silver ores, and other minerals 
as well, are found from the northern to the southern 
limit of the Andes, and this is therefore one of the great 
mineral-producing regions of the world. It was the 
abundance of precious metals which attracted the Span- 
iards to the continent. 

The precious metals were mined for use in Spain rather 
than in the colonies. In fact, the welfare of the latter was not 
considered; and of the Spaniards who came to manage the 
mines and govern the... people, few remained as permanent 
settlers. They exerted a destructive influence therefore, and 
the permanent population which they left consisted mainly of 
Indians and half-breeds. 

Goaded by the Spanish misgovernment, these colonies 
revolted in the early part of the last century and es- 
tablished independent republics. But the nature of the 
population was such that real republican government was 
impossible. In each of the countries ambitious leaders, 
usually generals in the army, have again and again over- 
turned the government after a revolution. This has 
seriously interfered with the development of industry and 
commerce ; for not only have lives and property been 
lost, but a feeling of uncertainty has been introduced 
which has prevented settlers from coming, and capitalists 
from investing money for the development of the re- 
sources. 



132 



SOUTH AMERICA 



None of the capitals of the Andean countries are on the 
coast, and several are in the interior at a considerable elevation 
above sea level. In choosing such sites the Spaniards have 
had the example set them both by their Spanish ancestors 
and by the Incas ; for Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, and 
Madrid, the Spanish capital, are both at a considerable eleva- 
tion above sea level and many miles from the coast. The 
principal objects in the selection of these sites are to be near 
the mines, to secure a cooler and more healthful climate, and 
to obtain protection from attack by sea. 

Doubtless another reason why these cities are not on the 
coast is the absence of good harbors. Throughout almost its 
entire extent, except in the cold southern portion of Chile, the 
coast is wonderfully straight. Why ? (p. 99). Even in the 
present century the coast has risen several feet in a part of 
Peru and Chile. This uplift occurred during earthquake 
shocks, and it was, without question, the slipping of the rocks 
that caused the shocks. 

Colombia. — This country, named after Columbus, in- 
cludes the Isthmus of Panama, and therefore has seacoast 

on both oceans. 
It is of espe- 
cial importance 
to us, since the 
great Panama 
ship canal is be- 
ing constructed 
across the nar- 
rowest part of 
the Isthmus. 
Of what advan- 
tage would such 
a canal be to the 
United States ? What two cities are located at the ends 




Fig. 98. 
A native village in Colombia on the Panama Railway. 



ECUADOR 



133 



of this proposed canal ? A railway connects these two 
cities, and many goods are carried over it ; for vessels ap- 
proach from one side and unload and transfer their cargoes 
to the other ocean, where other vessels await. Thus the 
long voyage around South America may be saved. 

It is in Colombia that several of the Andean ranges 
terminate, so that the western part of the country is very 
mountainous. Here there is much mineral wealth, gold 
and silver being of most importance, though emeralds of 
excellent grade are also obtained. In the eastern portion 
of the country, on the other hand, are treeless llanos 
on which large numbers of cattle are raised, as in Vene- 
zuela. Coffee is the principal agricultural product and the 
chief export ; but sugar-cane, tobacco, and cocoa are also 
produced. On the mountain slopes the grains, fruits, and 
vegetables of temperate climates are grown. 

Although the resources of Colombia are extensive, they 
have been little developed as yet. The present inhabitants 
are for the most part of mixed blood, uneducated, and unpro- 
gressive. There is practically no manufacturing, and it is 
even necessary to import some of the food that is consumed. 
Roads are few, and only about five hundred miles of railway 
have been built in the entire country. The Magdalena River, 
however, is navigable. What city is near its mouth ? 



Bogota, the capital and largest city, is situated far 
in the interior and at an elevation of about a mile 
and a half above sea level. It has an agreeable cli- 
mate, even though within the tropics. . 

Ecuador. — Why should this name, the Spanish for equa- 
tor, be applied to this country ? In the Andes of Ecua- 
dor there are many volcanoes, including Cotopaxi, the 



13-1 



SOUTH AMERICA 



loftiest active- volcano in the world, and Chimborazo, 
which is still higher but no longer active. 

Naturally, because of its position, this country has a hot, 
damp climate near sea level (Fig. 80), but is much more 
temperate on the mountain slopes. The principal occu- 
pations are cattle raising and farming. The chief farm 




Fig. 99. 

A native house in Ecuador. Can you suggest reasons for building it on posts 
rather than on the ground ? 



products are wheat and barley on the highlands, and 
coffee, sugar-cane, and cocoa on the warm lowlands. The 
latter is the most important product of Ecuador, and 
fully one-fifth of all the cocoa produced in the world 
conies from there. 

To cultivate cocoa the underbrush is cleared from the 
forest and cocoa trees are planted in the shade of the larger 
forest trees. This delicate plant requires not merely shade 
but also a warm, humid atmosphere with copious rains. At 



ECUADOR 



135 



the end of the fifth or sixth year, having reached a height 
of eight or nine feet, it begins to bear fruit. The tree, which 
at maturity is twenty or thirty feet high, has small pink and 
yellow blossoms which grow directly from the main trunk and 
branches. It blossoms throughout the year, and its leaves are 
always green. 

From each blossom there develops a golden-colored pod, 
several inches in length, enclosing a number of seeds or beans 
which are surrounded by a cellular tissue. They are bitter 
and about the size of a large almond. After being washed, 
dried, and roasted, the beans are ready to be made into choc- 
olate, which, because of its agreeable taste and nutritious 
qualities, is widely used as a drink and as an ingredient of 
candies. By what routes might cocoa well be shipped from 
Guayaquil to New York ? 

Another product of Ecuador, and of some other South Amer- 
ican countries, is sarsaparilla, which is obtained from the 
large fleshy roots of a species of smilax. The juice from 
this root is much used in the manufacture of certain medi- 
cines. The rubber industry is also well developed ; and now 
that the accessible supply from wild trees is becoming ex- 
hausted, attention is being given to the planting of rubber 
trees. 

Even in the cities there is practically no manufacturing. 
One of the reasons for this is the almost total absence of roads, 
making the transportation of heavy machinery very difficult. 
This fact also interferes greatly with mining operations among 
the mountains. Therefore, although there is much gold and 
silver, mining is as yet slightly developed. 



Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated among the 
mountains of the interior at an elevation of about nine 
thousand feet. But the largest city is the seaport Guay- 
aquil, the westernmost of the large cities of South 
America. It is in W. Long. 80°. Does it lie to the east 
or west of Washington ? 



136 



SOUTH AMERICA 



Peru. — The broad, forest-covered plains on the eastern 
side of the rugged Andes are drained by some of the 
larger headwaters of the Amazon, and thus Peru is pro- 
vided with water communication to the Atlantic. While 
much of this dense tropical forest 
is an almost unexplored wilderness, 
the mountain valleys are settled 
mainly by the descendants of the 
Incas. 

In Peru there are not only variations 
in climate due to altitude, as in Ecua- 
dor and Colombia, but also great dif- 
ferences in rainfall. The heavy fall of 
rain on the eastern side of the Andes 
offers a striking contrast to the arid and 
even desert climate along their western 
slopes (Pig. 26). State the cause of 
this aridity once more (p. 103). So 
little rain falls in southwestern Peru 
that in some parts, even close by the 
sea, there is an average of but one 
shower in seven years. 




Fig. 100. 
A Peruvian Indian. 



Peru was one of the most valu- 
able sources of gold and silver 
for the Spanish conquerors. The Incas who dwelt 
there had accumulated gold for ornament, and this the 
Spaniards seized. Then, opening mines, they forced the 
Indians to work as slaves. Since that time vast quanti- 
ties of gold and silver have been obtained in that country, 
and valuable deposits of gold, petroleum, and copper have 
also been found. 

There is much agriculture in Peru, the principal 
crops being corn, wheat, and potatoes among the moun- 



PERU 



137 



tains, and sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, and coffee in the 
lower, warmer sections. Even in the arid portion there 
is some farming ; for, as in southern California, the rains 
and snows of the mountains supply the short rivers with 
water for irrigation in the valleys and on the narrow 




Fig. 101. 
Ruins of an ancient Inca " palace " — an Inca Indian in the foreground. 

coastal plains. Thus, even in the desert, there are gar- 
dens, vineyards, and fields of cotton and sugar-cane. 

The Incas (p. 109) cultivated a number of native plants 
already mentioned. Can you name them ? The value of 
coca, from which cocaine is made, was also taught by the 
Incas. This plant is cultivated in the warm valleys on the 
eastern slopes of the Andes, at an elevation of five or six 
thousand feet, where frosts are unknown. The leaves, after 
being dried in the sun, are chewed, and they produce such in- 



138 



SOUTH AMERICA 



vigorating effects that a small quantity enables one to endure 
great fatigue. Before the Spaniards arrived the leaves were 
highly prized ; and to-day both coca leaves and cocaine are 
exported from Peru. 

Chiachona, or Peruvian bark, from which the valuable medi- 
cine quinine is obtained, was also known to the Incas and is 




Fig. 102. 
A view of Lima, the capital of Peru. 

still an important Peruvian product. It is obtained from an 
evergreen tree whose leaves resemble those of the laurel. 

Before the year 1879 Peru was making rapid progress; 
but by a war with Chile at that time the nation became 
almost paralyzed. Although there is some manufacturing, 
especially connected with sugar production, most manu- 
factured articles must be imported. 

The Peruvians have built two railway lines into the 
mountains, one from the port of Callao, and another 



PERU 



139 



from Arequipa to Lake Titicaca (Figs. 103 and 106). The 
first passes through Lima and then climbs the mountains, 
crossing deep gorges by means of high trestles, winding about 
on the very edges of precipices, tunnelling through the 
mountain rock, and finally crossing the western range of the 
Andes at an elevation of 15,645 feet. 

Lima, the capital (Fig. 102), founded by the Spanish 
conquerors in 1535, is situated at the base of the Andes. 
As in other Spanish countries the Moorish style of archi- 
tecture prevails, and the houses are commonly built around 




Fig. 103. 
Lake Titicaca with the snowy ranges of the Ancles in the far distance. 

an open courtyard. The walls of the lower story are two 
or three feet thick, made of adobe or sun-dried brick ; and 
if a second story is added, it is made of bamboo coated 
with adobe. By this method of construction, the buildings 
are better able to withstand earthquake shocks, and the 
inhabitants are in less danger from falling walls. 

Callao, the seaport of Lima, is about seven miles from 
the capital. Its harbor is but little more than an open 
roadstead partially protected by an island on the south- 
west side. However, since the winds and ocean swells 
are from the south, while the coast is practically never 
visited by storms, this slight protection is sufficient. 



140 



SOUTH AMERICA 



Arequipa, at an elevation of seven thousand feet, is sepa- 
rated from the sea by sixty miles of desert. Cuzco, the old 
Inca capital, is on an interior table-land, at an elevation of over 
eleven thousand feet. The ruins of the Inca citadels and 
"palaces" (Fig. 101) are still to be seen, and many pure-blooded 
and half-breed Incas still dwell in and near the city. 

Bolivia. — This country, named after General Bolivar, 
the great South American leader in the revolt against 

Spain, was robbed 
of its seacoast by 
Chile during the 
war between 
Chile and Peru. 
What other South 
American coun- 
try has no sea- 
coast ? In a broad 
valley between 
the mountains is 
Lake Titicaca 
(Figs. 103 and 
106), partly in Peru and partly in Bolivia. This lake, the 
greatest in South America, is almost as large as Lake Erie ; 
and its elevation, twelve thousand five hundred feet above 
the sea, makes it the most elevated great lake in the world. 
The Incas occupied this region also, and mined much 
gold. Besides gold the Spanish have found veins of 
copper, tin, and silver, so that mining has been one of the 
most important industries of the country. It is said that 
over three billion dollars' worth of silver has been secured 
since the Spanish discovery. Bolivia is also one of the 
great tin-producing countries of the world. 




Fig. 104. 

A stage coach fording a stream in Bolivia. From 
this it will be seen how difficult it would be to draw 
heavy machinery. 



BOLIVIA 



141 



The mining and reduction of the ore are done by very crude 
methods. For example, instead of using costly machines for 




Fig. 105. 
A group of llamas in the Andes. 

crushing the ore, as in the United States, one method followed 
is to roll boulders 
around on the ore 
until it is crushed. 
Since there are 
practically no 
railways, goods 
are transported 
for the most part 
by trains of pack- 
mules, donkeys, 
alpacas, or llamas 
(Figs. 79 and 
105). The llama 
here, as in Peru, 
is of great value 
to the inhabitants, not merely as a beast of burden, but also as 
a source of wool for clothing. 




Fig. 106. 

An Indian boy in a rush boat on Lake Titicaca. The 
fact that rushes are still used in making boats shows 
how these people cling to ancient customs. 



142 SOUTH AMERICA 

Much of eastern Bolivia, like eastern Peru and the 
Amazon valley, is an almost unknown forest wilderness. 
But in the mountain valleys and on the plateaus agricul- 
ture is carried on, with products similar to those of Peru. 
Most of these are consumed at home, though some coffee 
is exported. The farming methods are very crude. For 
example, the wooden plough, resembling that used by the 
ancient Egyptians, may still be seen, being drawn by 
cattle yoked behind the horns. Doubtless such methods 
are partly explained by the fact that not more than a 
quarter of the people have an}^ white blood. 

A railway line connects western Bolivia with the sea. 
Better railways and the improvement of the rivers, so as 
to permit river transportation to the Atlantic, are among 
the greatest needs of the country. Through what rivers 
could boats pass to the sea ? Find the capital of Bolivia. 
La Paz, the largest city, has twice as many inhabitants 
as the capital. 

Chile 

Physiography and Climate. — ■ Since the divide between 
the Atlantic and Pacific drainage forms the eastern boun- 
dary line of Chile, the country is very narrow in an east 
and west direction. It is also very mountainous (Fig. 
107). Much of the coast line is regular like that of the 
rest of South America ; how is it with the southern portion ? 

The climate varies more than "that of any other South 
American country. The northern part is within the 
torrid zone, while the southern end reaches far into the 
bleak south temperate zone (Fig. 108) ; and on the moun- 
tain slopes there is every climate from frigid 1 to torrid. 

1 The name Chile is derived from an Indian word signifying snow. 



CHILE 143 

Moreover, northern Chile is arid and in places an absolute 
desert ; but central and southern Chile reach into the 
rainy belt of prevailing westerlies (Fig. 29). The most 
fully settled and best developed section lies in the middle 
part between the hot, arid north and the bleak, rainy south. 
This portion of the coast is bathed by a cold current from 




Fig. 107. 
Snow-covered mountains of Chile. 

the south, which cools the atmosphere of Chile as the 
Labrador current chills that of New England (Fig. 38). 
Mineral Wealth. — There is much mineral wealth, in- 
cluding lead, silver, coal, and copper. The latter is of such 
importance that Chile, like the United States, is one of the 
great copper-producing countries of the world. There are 
also beds of nitrate of soda which were captured during the 
war of 1879-80, and at present yield the government an 
annual income of fully 810,000,000. Nitrate is the princi- 
pal export. 

The nitrate beds occur in the midst of the desert of Atacama, 
in which rain almost never falls. The substance occurs in lay- 
ers a few inches to one or two feet thick, over an area thirty 



144 SOUTH AMERICA 

or forty miles in breadth. In color it varies, being white, 
yellow, blue, brown, etc., according to the impurities contained. 
After being dug out, the pure nitrate is dissolved and sepa- 
rated from the impurities, and then sold. Its chief use is that 
of a fertilizer, for which purpose great quantities are shipped 
from the port of Iquique. It is believed that the nitrate. was 
deposited in lagoons which were shut off from the sea and sub- 
jected to evaporation in the arid climate. 

Agriculture, Manufacturing, and General Development. 

— There is much agriculture in Chile, especially in the 




_ 



Fig. 108. 

A view in the Strait of Magellan at the hleak southern end of Chile. Snow 

remains on these mountains throughout the year. 

rainy middle portion. The principal crops are the vari- 
ous grains, tobacco, and vegetables, thus resembling agri- 
culture in many parts of the United States. More wheat 
and barley are produced than are needed at home, so that 
Chile helps to supply other nations with grain,, Large 
herds of cattle are also reared, and sheep raising is one 
of the chief industries in southern Chile. Hides, shoe 
leather, and wool are exported. More manufacturing is 
carried on than in most South American countries, the 
principal kinds being flour milling, cheese making, tan- 
ning, and shoe manufacturing ; but as elsewhere on that 
continent, machinery and many other manufactured arti- 
cles are purchased in Europe and the United States. 



ISLANDS NEAR THE CONTINENT 145 

Chile is one of the most progressive countries in South 
America. Its government is stable, and its industries 
are -well developed. This progress is doubtless in large 
part due to the temperate climate, which requires energy 
on the part of its inhabitants, and invites settlers from the 
temperate climate of Europe. It is interesting to note 
that the two most advanced nations of South America lie 
side by side in the temperate zone. 

Cities. — The principal cities are Santiago, the capital 
and largest city, situated inland, and Valparaiso, its 
seaport. As at Callao (p. 139), the harbor of Valparaiso 
is open to the north ; but this is not a serious objection, 
because the wind seldom blows from that quarter. 

Islands near the Continent 

The Galapagos 1 Islands, about six hundred miles west of 
Ecuador on the equator, are a group of small volcanic islands 
owned by Ecuador. They are too far from the continent to 
show on our map. When discovered they were uninhabited 
by man, and the only large animals living there were gigantic 
tortoises, which wandered about in great numbers, free from 
danger of enemies. 

Just east of the southern tip of South America are the Falk- 
land Islands, which belong to Great Britain. Their surface is 
hilly and rugged, and the climate is raw. There is some sheep 
raising and fishing. Still farther east are the islands of Soxith 
Georgia, also British. They are inhospitable, ice-bound lands 
with no permanent inhabitants. Yet they are no nearer the 
south frigid zone than are parts of Great Britain to the north 
frigid zone. But while Great Britain is bathed by a warm 
current, South Georgia is swept by cold, ice-laden currents 
from the Antarctic, pushed forward by the prevailing wester- 
lies (Eig. 38). 

1 A Spanish word for tortoise. 



146 SOUTH AMERICA 

Just off the coast of Venezuela, opposite the mouth of the 
Orinoco, is the low island of Trinidad, also a British posses- 
sion. This island is especially noted for its extensive pitch 
lake, from which asphaltum is obtained for use in making 
asphalt pavements. The asphaltum oozes slowly from the 
ground, and, as it is dug out, more oozes forth, as if there were 
an inexhaustible supply beneath the surface. 

West of Chile, and belonging to that country, is the island 
of Juan Fernandez. This is the island where Selkirk was 
wrecked, and by some is thought to be the island home of Rob- 
inson Crusoe. It seems quite certain, however, that Defoe 
described Tobago just north of Trinidad. 

Review Questions. — (1) State some resemblances between South 
America and North America. (2) Describe the highland regions. 
(3) The lowlands. (4) In what respects do North and South 
America differ? (5) Tell about the differences in temperature in 
different parts of South America. (6) Explain the regions of heavy 
rainfall. (7) Where are the arid belts? Give the reasons. (8) What 
about the rainfall in the south ? (9) Why does the rainfall vary with 
the season in the tropical belt? (10) What differences in the plant 
life are found in South America? AVhy ? (11) Tell about the ani- 
mals of the tropical forest. (12) Of the plains and mountains. 
(13) Describe the Indian life in the forest. (14) What can you tell 
about the Incas? (15) State the main facts in the history of South 
America since the whites came. (16) Describe the principal physio- 
graphic features of Brazil. (17) What are the variations in climate? 
(18) Tell about the influence of rainfall upon the vegetation and the 
rivers. (19) Describe the tropical forest of the Amazon. (20) What 
valuable products are found? (21) What can you tell about mandi- 
oca? (22) Describe the gathering of rubber. (23) Tell about coffee 
raising. (24) What other products come from Brazil? (25) Name 
and locate the principal cities; what can you say about each? 
(26) Describe the physiography of Argentina. (27) What influ- 
ence have the physiography, and climate had upon development? 
(28) Describe ranching in Argentina. (29) How does it differ from 
that of the United States? Why? (30) What are the principal 
farm products ? (31) Tell about manufacturing. (32) About com- 
merce. (33) How does Argentina differ from many other South 
American countries? (34) Compare Buenos Aires with New York. 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 



147 



(35) Locate the other cities named. (36) What are the industries of 
Uruguay? (37) Name the capital. (38) Compare Uruguay with Ar- 
gentina. (39) What about the climate and products of Paraguay? 
(40) Tell about Paraguay tea. (41) Name the three Guianas. 
(42) What are the conditions and products? (43) What can you 
tell about British Guiana? (44) About Dutch Guiana? (45) About 
French Guiana? (46) Describe the physiography of Venezuela. 
(47) What are the principal industries? (48) What can you tell 
about Caracas? (49) Name the Andean countries. (50) Tell about 
the climate, its variations, and influence on the farm products. 
(51) What about the minerals? (52) What was the influence of the 
Spaniards ? (53) Give reasons for the locations of the capitals. 
(54) Of what importance is the Isthmus of Panama? (55) Describe 
the physiography and industries of Colombia. (56) What about the 
capital ? (57) Tell about the effect of climate on the industries in 
Ecuador. (58) Describe the cultivation of the cocoa plant. (59) Name 
some other products. (60) Why is there little mining and manufac- 
turing? (61) Locate the principal cities. (62) Tell about the physi- 
ography and climate of Peru. (63) About the minerals and agricultural 
products. (64) What products did the Incas cultivate? (65) Tell 
about the railways. (66) Locate and tell about the principal cities. 
(67) What about the large lake in Bolivia? (68) Tell about the 
mining. (69) The other industries. (70) The transportation of 
goods. (71) Describe the physiography of Chile. (72) The climate. 
(73) What mineral products are found ? (74) Tell about the nitrate 
of soda beds. (75) What other industries are developed? (76) Why 
is Chile so progressive ? (77) Locate the two largest cities. (78) Lo- 
cate each of the island groups mentioned. For what is each important? 



Review and Comparison with North America. — (1) Which 
of the two Americas has the advantage in regard to latitude ? Show 
how. (2) Tell about the effects of the trade winds in each continent 
(Figs. 26 and 30). (3) Of the prevailing westerlies (Figs. 29 and 30). 
(4) Locate the arid sections in each continent, and give the reasons 
for the lack of rain (Figs. 25 and 29). (5) Point out the rainiest 
section in each and state the causes. (6) Which of the two continents 
has the better position for world commerce? Why? (7) Into what 
ocean do the principal rivers of South America flow? Of North 
America? (8) What can you say about the regularity of the coast 
of the two grand divisions? Which has the advantage in this respect? 
How? (9) Locate the principal coast cities of South America. Of 



148 SOUTH AMERICA 

North America. Give the main advantages of the location in each 
case. (10) What about the number of lakes in each continent and 
their value for commerce? (11) What interior cities in each conti- 
nent can you locate ? (12) Compare both Brazil and Argentina with 
the United States in area. In population. (13) Compare Chile with 
Texas in these two respects. (14) What important farm products 
are common to South America and the United States? 1 (15) Name 
some products that are extensively raised in one and not in the other. 

(16) Which parts of each continent are especially noted for cotton ? 
Coffee ? Wheat ? Cattle and sheep ? Copper ? Precious metals ? 

(17) What is the prevailing kind of government in North and in South 
America ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Give several reasons why South America has 
been much less rapidly settled than North America. (2) What parts 
of North America have been rising and on that account possess 
few good natural harbors ? (3) How does the Spaniards' treatment 
of the Incas compare with their treatment of the North American In- 
dians? (4) Write a description of the Brazilian forest with its animal 
life. (5) Find out some of the ways in which coffee is often adul- 
terated. (6) Make a sand model of South America. A drawing. 
(7) If you were expecting to emigrate there, where would you prefer 
to settle ? Why ? (8) What products of South America are you 
probably seeing and using from week to week? (9) Is Brazil likely 
to rival the United States in importance in the future? Why? 
(10) What are the prevailing languages in South America? How 
has that come about? (11) How do you account for the similarity 
in the governments of North and South America? (12) Is it an 
advantage or a disadvantage for South America that it has so many 
more countries than North America? 

1 Help in answering questions 14 to 16 may be obtained from the two 
closing: sections of the book. 



■<■■ '■: ' I- 




ARCTIC 



* 



f 



V 



^ 






"V 



y 



C) 







4^ 



V<3 



^ North 



^> 






J^ A ^"^~ ^ 
~~v?3 S .. / °B6rlm 




Part III 



EUROPE 



oi*<c 



The continent of Europe was named when only the 
southern part of it was known ; that is, the portion that 
is separated from Africa and Asia by water. On Figure 
109 find what these bodies of water are called. As ex- 
ploration extended, it was found that Europe was really 
continuous with Asia, being in fact a great peninsula 
extending westward. Europe and Asia together actually 
form a single continent called Eurasia; but since Europe 
has been long considered a separate continent, and has 
figured so prominently as the home of the civilized races, 
it seems best to treat it separately. 

On the map (Fig. 172) trace the boundary between Europe 
and Asia. Make an outline map, inserting the boundaries and 
names of the European countries. Add the names of the seas 
and the larger islands. What countries are partly or wholly 
on peninsulas ? Add to the map the large rivers with their 
names Where are the chief divides ? Mark with heavy lines 
the location, of the principal mountains (Fig. 109). Write their 
names on the map. From what has previously been learned, 
what can you tell about the people of Europe ? About the cli- 
mate ? What does the peculiar condition of the Caspian Sea 
tell about the climate in that section ? 

149 



IX. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND PEOPLE 

Physiography 

Highlands and Lowlands. — As in the case of North 
America, the development of the continent of Europe has 
required millions of years. Far back in time mountains 
appeared above the sea in the northwestern portion of the 




Fig. 110. 

A view over the snow-capped peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. 

fills the valley. 



A sea of fog 



continent. Although greatly worn by the weathering of 
the ages, and much reduced in elevation, these mountains 
may still be seen in Finland, Scandinavia (the peninsula 
occupied by Norway and Sweden), and Scotland (Figs. 127 
and 129), as well as in Germany and Belgium. They re- 

150 






PHYSIOGRAPHY 



151 



semble the mountains of New England and eastern Canada, 
that have likewise been greatly worn by weathering. 

Other mountain ranges were later formed in southern 
Europe ; but, like those of western America, they are 
young and their recent growth has been vigorous. There- 




FlG. 111. 



Lake Geneva in a valley among the Alps. 

lake. 



The Rhone River flows out of this 



fore the Pyrenees (Fig. 155), Alps, and Caucasus (Fig. 
110) are still of great height. Find each on Figure 109. 
The mountains of North and South America form contin- 
uous chains, with the highest mountains in the west, 
extending north and south. But in Europe the loftiest 
mountains are in the south, extending in various direc- 
tions, though mainly east and west. How does this con- 



152 



EUROPE 



dition promise a different effect on the climate ? It is to 
the fact that the mountains are not continuous, and that 
they consist of chains extending in various directions, that 
Europe owes much of its extremely irregular outline. 

Besides the mountains mentioned, there is a long, low chain, 
known as the Urals, which extends north and south on the 
eastern side, and for a part of the distance forms the boundary 
between Europe and Asia. Other scattered highlands are 
shown on Figure 109. Where mainly are they situated ? 

Next to the Caucasus (Fig. 110) the loftiest of all these 
mountains are the Alps (Figs. Ill, 201, 204, and 205), whose 
rains and snows find their way to the sea through several of the 
large rivers of Europe. What are some of their names (Fig. 
172). Headwaters of four of these rivers are within forty miles 
of each other in the Alps. What large rivers of Europe do not 
rise in the Alps (Fig. 109) ? 

Between the low mountains of the north and east and 
the higher ranges of the south there is a very extensive 

lowland (Fig. 
109). A part of 
this has been 
submerged by 
the sinking of 
the land, thus 
forming the shal- 
low Baltic Sea. 
Beginning in the 
west with south- 
ern England, and 
passing through Belgium and Holland, or the " Low 
Countries," this plain broadens as it extends eastward 
across Germany (Fig. 112) until it includes almost all 




Fig. 112. 

Looking across the level plain of North Germany 
Peat is dug on this plain near the river. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 153 

of Russia (Fig. 109). Estimate its length east and west. 
About two-thirds of Europe is included in this plain. 

Some of the streams in the mountains, as in Scandinavia 
and Switzerland, have abundant water power; but most of 
the rivers flow with gentle slope over broad plains. As a 
result, most of the rivers are navigable for long distances ; 
for example, the Seine for 350 miles and the Rhine for 550 
miles. The level plains also encourage the building of canals ; 
and thus, by river, canal, and lake, the Black and Caspian seas 
are connected with the Baltic and North seas ; and the North 
and Caspian seas are connected with the Mediterranean. 

Coal Beds. — While these mountains and plains were 
forming, coal beds were also accumulating, as was the 
case in America during the Coal Period. 

Vast swampy tracts were covered with a luxuriant vegeta- 
tion ; then this land was lowered beneath the sea, and the plant 
remains became covered over and pressed closely together by 
the weight of thick layers of sand, gravel, and mud. After a 
while the sea bottom emerged once more, and rank vegetation 
returned, but this time with its roots in the ocean mud that 
had buried the earlier swamps. In the course of hundreds of 
years the land again sank and the plants were covered much 
as before. Thus one layer of dense vegetation after another 
was buried deep in the earth ; and there it has slowly changed 
to the coal that is of so much use in warming houses, cooking 
food, and running machinery. 

Figure 113 shows the parts of Europe in which coal beds occur. 
In what countries are they ? Most of the coal is bituminous 
or soft coal, though there is some anthracite. In a number 
of sections lignite or brown coal is mined. This is a poor vari- 
ety formed in much the same way as the bituminous, but at 
a later time than the Coal Period. Peat (Fig. 112) is also 
dug for fuel in western Europe, where the damp climate favors 
its formation. 



154 



EUROPE 



The Great Ice Sheet. — At the same period that eastern 
North America was invaded by a great ice sheet from the 
north, snow accumulated on the highlands of northwestern 






ARCTIC 




Fig. 113. 
Coal map of Europe. 



Figure 114 



Europe and spread outward in all directions, 
shows the extent of the European ice sheet. 

One glacier, with its centre in the Scandinavian peninsula, 
spread southward over the Russian plains, and into Germany 
and Holland. Smaller ice sheets were developed in the 
highlands of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales ; and these, united, 
covered all the British Isles, excepting the extreme southern 
part (Fig. 114). The British glaciers also flowed out into the 
North Sea and joined forces with the Scandinavian glacier. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 



155 



During this same period the glaciers of the Alps and other 
mountains were much more extensive than now, extending far 
down the mountain valleys. These facts are known by the 
deposits of drift that the ice left, by the boulders and pebbles 




that the glacier moved, and by the scratches that were made on 
the rock as the ice dragged these fragments along. 

In Europe, as in North America, the ice cap was over a 
mile thick ; and when it slowly moved over the surface 
it swept away the soil that had accumulated, and ground 
the rock fragments to bits. These bits of rock it depos- 
ited elsewhere as drift, so that, while the bed rock was 
left bare in some places, in others it was covered with 
a deep glacial soil containing boulders and pebbles. In 



156 



EUROPE 




many places the drift blocked the stream valleys and thus 
caused innumerable falls and small lakes. In Figure 109 
note the distribution of lakes in Europe (see also Figs. 

122 and 200).. 
The greater 
number of these 
lakes are too 
small to be shown 
on our maps. Of 
what service are 
lakes and falls to 
man ? 

The Coast Line. 
— The irregular- 
ities of the coast 
line of northern 
Europe, like 
those of north- 
eastern North America, are due to the sinking of the land. 
The Baltic Sea and its gulfs represent old land valleys ; 
and the hills of this submerged land form either islands, 
peninsulas, or shallow banks where food fish abound. 

It seems to be well proved that, before the Glacial Period, 
the British Isles were connected with the mainland by low 
plains where the North Sea and English Channel now exist. 
An elevation of only a few hundred feet would restore this 
condition by changing the bed of the North Sea to dry 
land. This would then extend the continent westward beyond 
the British Isles, thus destroying the bays and harbors, and 
altering the entire outline of northwestern Europe. 

In southern Europe the rising and sinking of small 
areas of land — while the mountains were forming — has 



Fig. 115. 

A fjord on the coast of Norway — a mountain valley 
into which the sea has been admitted by sinking of 
the land. (See also Fig. 173.) 



CLIMATE 157 

made many peninsulas, with bays, gulfs, islands, and seas 
between. The Mediterranean itself occupies a basin, thou- 
sands of feet in depth, formed by the sinking of this part 
of the earth's crust. Some of these islands, however, are 
partly or wholly built up by volcanic action. What vol- 
cano is on the island of Sicily (Fig. 200) ? 

As a result of all these land movements, Europe has the 
most irregular coast of all the continents. Name its large 
peninsulas. How many of them are mountainous ? Name the 
larger gulfs and seas that border the continent. How about 
the number of fine harbors ? Show by examples how this great 
irregularity of the coast is of advantage in allowing vessels to 
proceed far into the interior of the continent. 

Climate 

Influence of Latitude. — Trace the 50th parallel of lati- 
tude on a globe or map of the world. Notice that while 
the 49th parallel forms the northern boundary of western 
United States, it passes entirely south of England, crosses 
France near Paris, and extends through southern Germany 
and Russia. From this it is evident that by far the larger 
part of Europe lies farther north than the United States, 
and due east of Canada. St. Petersburg is in the same 
latitude as northern Labrador ; and the tips of the penin- 
sulas of southern Europe reach about as far south as the 
southern boundary of Virginia. 

In the far north, near the Arctic, the climate is bleak, 
and there are barren, frozen tundras. South of this is a 
belt of fir, spruce, and pine, like that which stretches east 
and west across central Canada. But contrary to what 
might be expected from latitude alone, the climate in and 
just south of this belt of evergreen forest permits the 



158 



EUROPE 




CLIMA TE 



159 



M \ 









«/ /-a/7- ~'K-M' s ^li^m M 




160 EUROPE 

growth of the grains and fruits that flourish in south- 
ern Canada and northern United States. In southern 
Europe, in the latitude of central United States, such 
semi-tropical fruits as oranges, lemons, olives, and figs are 
cultivated. That is to say, the products of the greater 
part of Europe are such as grow several hundred miles 
farther south in eastern North America. 

That these products are raised in great abundance in 
Europe is indicated by the number of people there ; for, 
although the continent is much less than half the size of 
North America, it supports four times as many inhabit- 
ants, or nearly 400,000,000. Let us see the explanation 
of these remarkable facts. 

Resemblance to Western North America. — In several 
respects the climate of Europe is so similar to that of 
western North America that a brief review will be useful. 
It will be recalled that our western coast, north of San 
Francisco, is under the control of the prevailing westerlies 
(Fig. 25). These winds from the Pacific so temper the cold 
of winter and the heat of summer as to produce a very mild 
climate for some distance inland ; but toward the east, 
or interior, the influence of the ocean decreases and the 
extremes of temperature become greater. South of San 
Francisco the influence of the horse latitudes and the 
trade-wind belts is felt, and whatever wind there is, usually 
blows either along the coast or from the land. 

The vapor-laden westerlies, rising over the highlands 
north of San Francisco, cause an abundance of rain, so that 
western Washington and Oregon have the heaviest rain- 
fall in the United States. In crossing the mountains, 
however, the winds are so deprived of moisture that the 
plateaus and plains beyond are arid (Fig. 30). Southern 



CLIMATE 161 

California has rain in winter, especially in the mountains ; 
but in summer, when the trade-wind belt has moved north- 
ward (Figs. 31 and 32), the winds blow either along the 
coast or from the land. Therefore the climate is so dry 
that agriculture can be carried on only by irrigation. 

Now turn to northern Europe. The prevailing wester- 
lies are felt there as in the United States. Blowing from 
the ocean, and, what is especially important, from across 
the warm ocean current (p. 50), they distribute an enor- 
mous amount of heat over the land. It is the westerlies 
from these warm waters, more than any other factor, that 
allow crops to be raised nearer the pole in Europe than 
in any other part of the globe. If these conditions were 
not present, much of that densely populated continent 
(Fig. 120) would be a barren waste, like Labrador. 

The effect of the ocean winds is naturally greatest 
near the coast, as in western North America. Therefore 
England has a mild, rainy climate ; but the farther east- 
ward one goes, the less is the influence of the ocean. 
Thus eastern Russia experiences great extremes of heat 
and cold, and there is danger of serious droughts. Com- 
pare the summer and winter temperature (Figs. 116 and 
117) and the rainfall (Fig. 118) of these two sections. 

Southern Europe, like southern California, is not affected 
by the westerlies in summer, for it lies then within the 
belt of the horse latitudes. This accounts for the fact 
that southern Spain, Italy, and Greece receive very little 
rain in summer. Examine Figure 118 to see where in 
Europe the rainfall is light. Find some places where 
there is abundant rain on mountain slopes. 

Influence of Cyclonic Storms. — Thus far we have seen 
a striking- resemblance in the climates of the two conti- 



162 EUROPE 

nents. But there are also notable differences. The 
westerlies are less regular in Europe than in western 
North America because of frequent interruption by the 
cyclonic storms, which, after passing over eastern North 
America, often cross the ocean and continue across Europe 
(p. 35). Why cannot their arrival be predicted as well 
as in the United States ? 

As in eastern United States and Canada, the cyclonic storms 
cause variable winds (Fig. 35). For example, when a storm 
centre is west of the British Isles the westerlies are checked 
and the winds blow toward the centre, or from the east. But 
while storm winds from the east bring rain to eastern North 
America, the same kind of winds cannot bring rain to eastern 
Europe, because there is no great ocean near at hand to supply 
the vapor. On account of the absence of ocean water, therefore, 
eastern Europe has little rain, as eastern America would have 
if there were land instead of water to the east of it. 

Effect of Mountain Ranges. — The direction in which 
the highlands extend is a second cause of great difference 
between the climates of Europe and America. In Amer- 
ica, where high mountains extend north and south along 
the entire western margin of the continent, the warm, 
damp westerlies are soon deprived of their moisture. This 
leaves a vast arid and semi-arid area in the interior. 

In Europe, on the other hand, where the higher ranges 
extend nearly east and west, the mountains do not so 
seriously interfere with the movement of vapor to the 
interior. Consequently the west winds surrender their 
moisture only very gradually. This accounts for the fact 
that in the belt of westerlies, from western Ireland to 
eastern Russia, there is rainfall enough for agriculture. 

The east-west direction of the lofty mountains has a marked 
influence on the climate of those portions of Europe that lie 



CLIMATE 



163 



on their north and south sides. Rising like great walls, the 
mountains prevent south winds from bearing northward the 
heat of the Mediterranean basin; and they also interfere with 
the passage of the chilling winds from the north. We know 
that Florida, much farther south than southern Europe, is 




Fig. 118. 



visited by cold waves and accompanying frosts ; but mountain 
barriers prevent such winds in portions of southern Europe. 

Inland Seas. — The numerous inland seas are another great 
factor in influencing the climate of parts of Europe. Draw 
a sketch map of Europe, locating these seas. How does the 
Mediterranean compare in length with Lake Superior ? It 
will be remembered that our Great Lakes produce a marked 
influence on the climate of the neighboring land, moderating 



164 EUROPE 

the heat of summer and the cold of winter. It is this influ- 
ence, added to that of the mountain barrier, that gives to south- 
ern Italy, Greece, France, and Spain such an equable and almost 
tropical climate. How must these seas influence the rainfall ? 

People 

Their Origin. — It is generally believed that the white 
races now living in Europe belonged at one time — long 
before there was any written history — to one great family 
(p. 74). It is further believed by some that their origi- 
nal home was in Asia, by others that it was in northern 
Africa. However that may be, at the earliest time about 
which we have definite information, most parts of Europe 
were inhabited by uncivilized tribes having many different 
languages and customs. But the more advanced inhabit- 
ants of Egypt and southern and eastern Asia had already 
begun to exert a strong influence upon those Europeans 
who dwelt nearest them along the Mediterranean shores. 

The Greeks. — Among the latter the Greeks took the 
lead. Their warm climate was favorable to many kinds 
of vegetation, and still not so hot as to destroy the energy 
of the people. Good harbors were numerous ; the sea 
was so narrow that it could be crossed with safety ; and 
thus navigation developed. Not only were the valuable 
treasures of neighboring shores brought in ships, but much 
trade was also carried on. with the Far East by means of 
caravans that crossed the intervening deserts. 

In time the Greeks even surpassed their teachers, the 
Asiatics, and became the most highly civilized people of 
the world. The writings of the ancient Greek philoso- 
phers, and the works of art produced by their sculptors, 
are to this day classed among the most wonderful of man's 



PEOPLE 165 

works. They also founded the first republics, or govern- 
ments by the people, of which we have historic account. 
But the fact that Greece is so mountainous, with many 
enclosed valleys, was unfavorable to the development of a 
united, powerful nation ; and the country was therefore 
divided into small and independent states. This weakness 
accounts in part for the fact that, before the time of Christ, 
the Greeks were conquered by their neighbors. 

The Romans. — Their later conquerors, the Romans, 
lived in Italy, with Rome as their capital. The Romans 
possessed a remarkable power for organization, and grew 
into a great nation, not only subduing the tribes around 
them, but finally obtaining control of all the countries 
bordering the Mediterranean. They even waged victori- 
ous war far to the north and west, under the leadership 
of Julius Ceesar, and for hundreds of years the Rhine and 
Danube rivers marked the northern boundary of the 
Roman Empire. 

Much of this territory was held by force and governed 
by rulers sent from Rome. You see on the map (Fig. 109) 
that the sources of these two rivers are close together in 
the Alps, and that they form an almost continuous line 
from the North to the Black Sea. While the Romans 
claimed all territory south of this border, wild, barbarous 
tribes possessed all upon the other side. Thus Europe 
was divided into parts, controlled by two very different 
classes of people. 

On the one hand, there were the Romans, representing the 
dark Caucasian type (p. 75), the most powerful nation then on 
the earth, and highly civilized. They had excellent roads, 
luxurious homes, magnificent public buildings, and various 
kinds of amusement. Although for a long time they wor- 



166 EUROPE 

shipped heathen gods, and bitterly persecuted the Christians, 
a little more than three hundred years after the time of Christ 
their government adopted the Christian religion. 

On the other hand, there were vast hordes of barbarians 
representing the fair type of Caucasians (p. 75) and mostly 
free from Roman rule. They were divided into many indepen- 
dent tribes, and had made little advance in the civilizing arts. 
But they learned much from the Romans, adopted many of 
their best customs, and, in time, even accepted the Christian 
religion. The history of Europe, the customs of its people, 
and the very language of many of its nations, have all been 
profoundly influenced by the Romans. The descendants of 
these barbarians now form the powerful nations of northern 
Europe ; and since those who settled Canada and the United 
States came largely from these nations, we ourselves are 
descendants of the barbarians of northern Europe. 

Decline of the Roman Empire. — In time the Roman 
Empire began to decay. The great wealth that the 
higher classes had accumulated allowed them to live in 
the most luxurious fashion ; and, being surrounded by 
hosts of slaves, — enemies captured in war, — they were 
unfortunately deprived of the necessity for work. In 
consequence the Romans gradually lost the ability and 
energy to defend their own country. 

Their barbarian neighbors, on the other hand, were in- 
creasing in power. They were a hardy, energetic people, 
and they knew how to apply the many lessons learned from 
the Romans. The time came when they ceased to fear 
their once powerful foes. Then one body after another 
marched into the . Roman territory as conquerors, finally 
sacking the city of Rome in the year 410. At the same 
time the distant parts of the Empire threw off the Roman 
yoke, and thus the Roman Empire crumbled and fell. 



PEOPLE 167 

Later Development of European Nations. — Thus we see 
that, while the Roman Empire was at one time far-reach- 
ing, it did not succeed in binding its various peoples 
closely together, as one great nation with common interests. 
Nor have their descendants been brought together since 
that time. One of the most important reasons for this 
failure is the fact that so many parts of the continent are 
quite detached from all others. Spain, for example, is not 
only a peninsula, but it is separated from France by a high 
range of mountains. The British Isles are entirely cut 
off by water ; Scandinavia nearly so ; and Italy itself is 
bounded on the north by lofty mountains, and by water on 
all other sides. It is natural that people living in such 
isolated positions should not feel a common interest with 
those who are so separated from them. Thus have arisen 
many different customs, beliefs, and languages. 

In consequence of such differences and lack of common 
interests there are many more nations in Europe than 
in North America. Count them (Fig. 172). There have 
been many jealousies and disputes between them which 
have been settled by war, and their boundaries have been 
subjected to numerous changes, as one nation or another 
has seized territory during war. Notice also how irregu- 
lar are some of the boundary lines. Those of Germany, 
for example, have been determined only after the loss of 
tens of thousands of human lives. 

People who carry on frequent wars and still thrive 
must possess an enormous amount of energy, and this is 
true of the inhabitants of Europe. After the fall of 
Rome little progress was made for a thousand years, and 
men were righting in one part of Europe or another during 
most of that period. After this time, known as the " Dark 




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REiNDEER 



Fig. 121. 
Some of the few wild animals of Europe. Domestic animals are abundant, including 
the reindeer of the tundras. Even the bear is tamed and exhibited. Have you ever 
seen one of these European bears performing on the street ? 



PEOPLE 171 

Ages,'' the people roused themselves for other work. They 
began to explore the world and to make inventions ; and 
then our modern civilization began to develop. 

Influence of the Discovery of America. — Of their many 
great achievements within modern times, probably the 
greatest was the discovery of America. In thinking of 
this event we are apt to consider only the mighty influ- 
ence Europe has had on America. But the New World 
has also exerted a powerful influence upon Europe. The 
encouragement given to navigation by this discovery led 
Europeans to explore other parts of the world. Their 
knowledge was thereby greatly increased and their wealth 
as well. Also, the crowded condition of Europe has been 
much relieved ; for many nations have poured forth emi- 
grants, not only to North and South America, but also to 
Australia and Africa and, more recently, even to Asia. 
It is a peculiar tie that binds the newly settled countries 
to Europe ; for, inasmuch as that continent has furnished 
most of the civilized population to these newer lands, it 
may be considered the Fatherland of them all. 

Review Questions. (1) Give reasons for and against treating 
Europe as a separate continent. (2) Tell about the highlands. 
(3) The lowlands. (4) The coal beds. (5) The Ice Age. (6) Locate 
the boundary of the ice sheet on Figure 114. (7) Tell about the coast 
line in northern Europe. (8) In southern Europe. (9) Of what 
advantage is the irregularity of the European coast? (10) Give 
the latitude of northern and of southern Europe. (11) How about 
its vegetation ? (12) Its population? (13) Tell about the winds and 
rainfall of western North America. (14) Remembering its latitude, 
explain the mild climate of Europe. (15) How are its regular wester- 
lies interfered with? (16) How is the east and west direction of its 
mountain ranges of great importance? (17) What is the influence 
of its inland seas? (18) Tell about the inhabitants of Europe in 
early times. (19) Which country took the lead in making progress, 



172 EUROPE 

and why? (20) Tell about the Greeks. (21) About the Romans 
and the extent of their territory. (22) Compare them with their 
barbarian neighbors in appearance and manner of life. (23) Why 
are these barbarians of especial interest to us? (24) Tell about the 
decline of the Roman Empire. (25) Give some reasons why Europe 
is divided into so many nations. (26) How has the discovery of the 
New World proved of great benefit to Europe ? (27) In what respect 
is Europe the Fatherland of other countries? 

Correlation with North America. (1) Compare Europe with 
North America in regard to highlands. (2) To lowlands. (3) Dis- 
tribution of coal beds. 1 (4) Extent of ice covering. (5) Irregularity 
of coast lines. (6) Latitude. (7) Vegetation (see also pp. 59 and 61). 
(8) Population. (9) In what respects are the two continents alike in 
climate? (10) In what respects unlike? (11) Compare the number 
of degrees of longitude in Europe with the number in North America. 
(12) Are the cyclonic storms as much needed in Europe as in America? 
Why? (13) Why should the most densely populated part of Europe 
be on the western side, while the most densely populated part of 
North America is on the eastern side? 

Suggestions. (1) What results might follow if the mountains of 
Europe extended north and south near the western coast? (2) What 
disadvantages do some of the European countries suffer in consequence 
of the east and west direction of the mountains on their south? 
(3) Mention some of the results if the land should rise near Gibraltar, 
changing the Mediterranean to a closed sea. How would the British 
Isles be influenced? Also Italy? (4) In Figures 116 and 117 trace 
some of the isotherms across Europe and explain the causes of their 
irregularity. (5) In what section would you expect to find most wild 
animals? (Fig. 121). (6) Give reasons why some European countries, 
such as Germany, take much better care of their forests than Ameri- 
cans do. (7) Can you tell about any of the great wars and great 
generals of Germany, England, or France ? (8) Can you tell of any 
of the changes in boundary lines ; for example, in Poland, or between 
France and Germany? (9) Explain how the adoption of Christian- 
ity by the Roman government was an event of great importance. 
(10) What distinguished Greeks and Romans can you name? 

1 Some of these comparisons will be made easier by examining the fig- 
ures in Section XXIV. 



Longitude (i West from 4 Greenwich 2 



BRITISH ISLES 

Scale of Miles. 

i 50 , 

Cities with over 1,000,000. . . . LOUtlOU 

Cities with 200,000 to 1,000,000. . Liverpool 
Cities with 100,000 to 200,000 . . .Portsmouth 

Smaller Places Plymouth q ]/l/ ra th 

Capitals of Countries s Other Places 




Fig. 122. 



X. THE BRITISH ISLES 

Map Questions (Fig. 122). (1) Walk toward the British Isles. 
(2) What two large islands do they include? (3) What waters sepa- 
rate these two? (4) Name the three divisions of Great Britain. 
(5) Where are the Orkney Islands? (6) The Hebrides? (7) The 
Shetland Islands ? (8) Find the Channel Islands. They are included 
among the British Isles. (9) What sea lies east of Great Britain ? 

(10) What country of Europe is nearest to Great Britain ? (Fig. 172). 

(11) What waters separate the two? (12) Make a sketch map of the 
British Isles. (13) Compare the coast line with that of Spain (Fig. 
154). With that of Norway (Fig. 172). What suggestion do you 
get from this comparison? (14) Notice how many of the large cities 
of Great Britain are on or near the coal fields (Fig. 131). Why is 
this so? 

Inhabitants. — When Caesar invaded Britain in 55 B.C., 
he found the island inhabited by barbarians whose ances- 
tors had crossed over from the continent. For the next 
four centuries the Romans governed Britain, introducing 
Christianity, building many excellent roads, and erecting 
strong walls in the north for protection against the inroads 
of wild tribes beyond. 

After the downfall of the Roman Empire, invaders from 
the mainland continued to visit the British coast, either to 
plunder the natives or to make permanent settlements. 
Among these invaders were the Angles and Saxons, from 
whom the names English and Anglo-Saxon have been 
derived. 



The Northmen from Scandinavia also raided the coast ; and 
the Danes from Denmark at one time ruled a large part of Eng- 
land. Since the natives had no well-organized government, 

173 



174 



EUROPE 



they were unable to resist these inroads by water ; but those 
who lived in the interior, or among the mountains, or on the 
more distant island of Ireland, were less open to attack. For 
this reason the Irish, the Welsh, and the Scotch Highlanders 
were less influenced by the invaders than inhabitants of what 
we now call England. 

The Normans from Normandy in France, themselves 
descendants of the piratical Scandinavian vikings, entered 

England as con- 
querors in 1066. 
For a long time 
after that there 
existed three 
kingdoms, Eng- 
land, Scotland, 
and Ireland ; 
but Scotland 
and England 
were united in 
1603, and Ire- 
land was added 
in 1801. Thus a United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland was formed, and the name United Kingdom is 
now commonly applied to these islands. 

From this brief history it is plain that the inhabitants 
have descended from several different peoples, and that 
their language and customs have been influenced by each. 
As a result of their surroundings and history the British 
people have developed a forcefulness which in large part 
explains the wonderful advancement of the empire. 

Position, Size, and Importance. — London is fully seven 
hundred miles farther north than New York City, and the 




Fig. 123. 
Ancient cottage near the Lakes of Killarney in Ireland. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



175 



British Isles are in the same latitude as Labrador. Eng- 
land itself is smaller than New England ; and the British 
Isles, including England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and 
several hundred small islands, are not much larger than 
the state of Col- 




orado. 

Yet in spite of 
their northern 
position and 
small area, the 
largest city in the 
world is located 
in the British 
Isles. More than 
that, Great Brit- 
ain has more 
manu f a c t u ring, 
after the United 
States, more 
foreign trade, a 
greater number 
of vessels upon 
the sea, and more 
colonies (Fig. 
142) than any 
other nation in 
existence (Fig. 193). There are of course reasons for 
these remarkable facts, and we shall next look for them. 

Physiography and Climate. — The southwesterly winds 
from over the warm ocean (p. 161) offer a partial expla- 
nation of the above facts. Two days out of three these 
winds blow across the British Isles ; and, since they have 



Fig. 124. 
July isotherms for the British Isles. 



176 



EUROPE 



traversed a vast expanse of warm water, they greatly tem- 
per the climate. Indeed, the winter season (Fig. 125) 
is milder than that in northern United States, and the 
summer (Fig. 124) is cooler (Figs. 86 and 37). The 

latter fact is due 
partly to the low 
inclination of the 
sun's rays in these 
northern lati- 
tudes, and partly 
to the fact that 
the ocean water, 
though warm, is 
cooler than land 
warmed by a sum- 
mer sun. Thus 
a temperature is 
caused which 
favors active ex- 
ertion through- 
out the year, the 
summer days be- 
ing rarely hot, 
the winter rarely 
excessively cold. 
The prevailing 

westerlies, carrying an abundance of moisture (p. 161), so 
distribute it over the islands that no section suffers from 
drought. Yet the western portions receive more rain 
than the eastern because the ocean winds visit them first 
(Fig. 126). 

The highlands also influence the rainfall. A highland rim 




Fig. 125. 
January isotherms for the British Isles. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



177 



extends around Ireland (Fig. 122), giving to the surface of that 
island the form of a shallow plate. How does that influence the 
rainfall ? (Fig. 126). Highlands are also found in Wales, west- 
ern England, and most of Scotland (Fig. 122). Examine Figure 
126 to see 
where the rain- 
fall is heaviest 
in Great Brit- 
ain. Where is 
the rainfall 
lightest? 
Why? 

As already 
stated (p. 
150), the 
mountains of 
Great Brit- 
ain, like those 
of New Eng- 
land, are so 
old that they 
are worn very 
low. While 
this upland is 
rarely more 
than one or 
two thousand 
feet above 
sea-level, 

there are occasional peaks of hard rock that rise to a 
greater height (Fig. 127). For example, the granite peak 
of Ben Nevis in Scotland, the highest point in the British 
Isles, is forty-three hundred feet in elevation. The Scot- 




Fig. 126. 
Rainfall map of the British Isles. 



178 EUROPE 

tish Highlands are so rugged and barren that few people 
are able to live there. 

Where the rocks are softer and less disturbed by 
folding there are lower and more level tracts, or plains. 
Point out the broadest plains of Ireland, Scotland, and 
England (Fig. 122). Notice especially the narrow low- 
land of southern Scotland, near Edinburgh and Glas- 




Fig. 127. 
A view in the Highlands of Scotland. 

gow. There the rocks are so much softer than those 
of the Highlands that instead of barren, hilly country, 
there is a fertile lowland, upon which, as in many parts of 
England, there are thriving industries. 

What have you already learned (p. 154) about the Great Ice 
Age in the British Isles ? As in northeastern North America, 
the glaciers had an important effect upon the soil and caused 
many lakes (Figs. 128 and 134). Explain how. 

The coast line is very irregular, as can be seen from the 
map (Fig. 122). How does the coast compare with that 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



179 



of New England? You have already learned that this 
irregularity is due to sinking of the land ; and that the 
many islands are the crests of former hills, while the bays 
and harbors are submerged valleys. Since the moun- 
tainous western portion had more deep valleys for the sea 
to enter than the level plains of the east, there are more 
good harbors on the west coast than on the eastern side 




Fig. 12S. 
The beautiful Loch Lomond in Scotland, a lake caused by the glacier. 

of the islands. On both sides, however, the mouths of 
the larger rivers usually make good ports. Why ? 

Kinds of Industries. — In our study of the United States 
we saw that the people are mainly engaged in the seven 
great industries of lumbering, ranching, agriculture, fish- 
ing, mining, manufacturing, and commerce. The first two 
are almost wanting in the British Isles, but the others are 
extensively developed. 

While it is true that in early times a large part of this land 
was densely wooded, little forest now remains, and lumber is 
consequently one of the leading imports. Since no portion of 



180 



EUROPE 



the British Isles is arid, the ranching industry is not devel- 
oped there as in western United States. 

Agriculture. — In connection with agriculture, however, 
much live stock is raised. In fact, grazing has of late so 
increased in importance that there is now twice as much 
land in pasture as in crops, and the British Isles are noted 




Fig. 129. 
Pasture land in the Highlands of Scotland. 



for their great number of fine cattle, sheep, and horses. 
The importance of grazing is partly explained by the fact 
that much of the surface, like that of New England, is too 
rocky or mountainous to be cultivated (Figs. 127 and 
129). Besides this, some of the plains in eastern Eng- 
land, although too sterile for farming, make excellent 
pasture land. Two other facts favorable to stock raising 
are the mild winters, and the damp atmosphere which 
encourages the growth of grass. In addition to these 



THE BRITISH ISLES 181 

causes, the cheapness with which grain is raised in other 
countries, like the United States, and transported to the 
British Isles on the large steamships, has made it less 
necessary for the British to raise grain. 

Owing to these conditions, there are more than thirty million 
sheep in the British Isles. The Cheviot variety, in southern 
Scotland, and the Southdowns, near London, are among the 
most noted kinds. Fine breeds of horses and cattle are raised 
on the more fertile lowlands, where the grass is long ; for horses 
and cattle cannot eat as short grass as sheep can. 

Several of the smaller islands are also widely known for 
live stock. For instance, the Shetlands are famous for 
Shetland ponies ; and on the three Channel Islands, — Jersey, 
Guernsey, and Alderney, — near the French coast, three breeds 
of cattle have been developed which are well known in the 
United States. What conclusions can you draw in regard to 
the dairy business in the British Isles ? Mention other uses 
of so much live stock. Would you expect to find a dense popu- 
lation in these grazing sections ? (see Fig. 120). Why ? 

The cool summer climate, which is of advantage in some 
respects, is unfavorable to many kinds of farming ; for 
example, it prevents the production of corn, cotton, tobacco, 
and grapes, which require warm summers. More hardy 
products, however, as oats, barley, and wheat, are exten- 
sively cultivated. Turnips, potatoes, beans, and peas are 
other important crops ; also hops, which, together with 
barley, are used in the manufacture of beer. Owing to 
the many towns and cities, truck farming is of importance ; 
and fruit and vegetable gardens are found near all the towns. 

The demand for farm land has been so great that large areas 
of swamp have been reclaimed by careful drainage, and these 
now make the most fertile farms. But in spite of the care that 
has been given to cultivating the soil and to raising live stock, 



182 



EUROPE 



far less food is produced than is needed by the inhabitants. 
Such vast multitudes are engaged in other occupations that if 
they were deprived of food from abroad, they would, it is said, 
begin to suffer from famine within a month. How different 
that is from our own country, whose area is so large, and 
climate so varied, that it not only supplies the food we need, 
but produces enormous quantities to be sent abroad. 

Fishing. — Since the early inhabitants had to cross the sea 




Fig. 130. 

A cottage in southwestern Englaud. 



in order to reach these islands, and since most of their descend- 
ants have lived either on or near the coast, it is natural that, 
as a people, they should become accustomed to a seafaring life. 
This sort of life has also been encouraged by the fact that food 
fish abound on the shallow banks of the North Sea and of the 
ocean to the north and west of the islands. More than one 
hundred thousand men and twenty-five thousand boats from 
the British Isles are employed in the fishing industry. Among 
the fish caught are cod, haddock, and herring, as off the coast 
of New England and Newfoundland. Another important kind 
is a flat-fish, the sole, which resembles the flounder of the 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



183 



New England coast. Salmon enter the rivers of northern 
Great Britain, and oysters are found along the southern coast. 
Many fishing hamlets are scattered along the shore ; but the 
fishing industry here, as in New England, is becoming more 
and more centralized in the large towns, which possess the 
capital for large vessels and expensive fishing outfits. The 
chief centres of the trade, like Boston and Gloucester in Massa- 
chusetts, are London, Hull, and Grimsby (Eig. 136, near 
Hull) in England, and Aberdeen in Scotland. 

Mining. — One of the resources of the British Isles 
which early attracted people from southern Europe was 
the tin in southwestern England. This metal is not 
mined in many parts of the world, but has always been 
in great demand ; and even before the time of Caesar, 
ships from the Mediterranean came to England to obtain 
tin for use in the manufacture of bronze. Small quanti- 
ties of copper, lead, zinc, and even gold and silver ores 
have also been discovered in the British Isles, but at pres- 
ent there is almost no mining of these metals. 

On the other hand, the abundance of two other min- 
erals, coal and iron ore, reminds us of our own country. 
We have already learned that Pennsylvania is the most 
important of our states in coal production, bituminous 
coal being mined in the neighborhood of Pittsburg, and 
the anthracite or hard variety about Wilkes Barre and 
Scranton. But coal is mined in many other parts of the 
United States. Can you name some ? This one small 
island of Great Britain, however, produces almost as 
much coal as all of our states together ; and the United 
States and Great Britain are the leading coal-producing 
countries of the world. 

Eigure 131 shows the sections of Great Britain in which coal 
is found. While most of the coal is bituminous, that in South 



184 



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COALFIELDS 



CHEAT 181UTAIX. 



X B T II 



Wales is mainly anthracite. Large numbers of miners in the 
United States are Welshmen who have come from that section. 

Iron ore is also abundant and favorably located. You 
will remember that in the United States the Lake Supe- 
rior district, now the leading iron-producing centre of the 
world, has no coal, and that its ore is transported to the coal 

fields of Pennsyl- 

&:[fc * ScakjC vania and other 

states to be 
smelted. But in 
Pennsylvania, 
coal, iron, and 
limestone are 
near together; 
and at Birming- 
ham, Alabama, 
they occur in the 
same valley side 
by side, making 
this district the 
most favorable 
for iron smelting 
in the United 
States. 

Parts of Great 
Britain possess 
the same advan- 
tage as Birming- 
ham, Alabama, 




ENGLISH 



A map showing 



Fig. 131. 

the coal fields of the British Isles. 



whose name, in fact, is derived from the close resemblance 
of conditions about it to those about Birmingham, Eng- 
land. None of the British iron ore is far from coal ; and 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



185 



in places the same shaft is used to bring both coal and 
iron to the surface. Limestone is also abundant and near 
at hand. What suggestions do these facts give concerning 
the development of manufactures and the location of large 
cities ? 

Besides these minerals, various building stones are exten- 
sively quarried, as granite in Scotland, and slate in northern 




Fig. 132. 
A castle in Wales, situated on one of the hills of hard rock. 

Wales. Salt is also found ; and there is clay of such excellent 
quality for earthenware that several towns have become noted 
for their potteries, as Trenton and Cincinnati have in the 
United States. The extent of the mining industry in the 
United Kingdom is indicated by the fact that more than half 
a million persons are employed there underground. 

Reasons for Development of Manufacturing. — Consider- 
ing the abundance of coal and iron ore on the one hand, 



186 EUROPE 

and of wool from the millions of sheep on the other, it is 
clear that Great Britain is able to manufacture exten- 
sively. Even in very early times the English were 
engaged in the weaving of woollen cloth. Later, owing 
to numerous wars and to the oppression from rulers on 
the continent, England became a refuge for oppressed 
industrial people from the mainland, so that such manu- 
facturing rapidly increased. 

As in New England, the hilly sections have abundant 
water power due to the glacier. This also favored manu- 
facturing ; and later, when steam was employed, the 
abundant stores of coal were of great importance. The 
use of steam has led to the building of many factories, and 
to the growth of manufacturing centres. Therefore, the 
making of cloth on hand looms at the homes of the 
weavers has been generally abandoned, although this 
form of manufacturing still lingers in parts of Ireland. 

The peculiar energy and inventive genius of the British, 
which kept their machinery in advance of that used by other 
nations, must also be considered. For example, it was the 
Scotchman, James Watt, who invented the modern steam engine ; 
and it was George Stephenson who invented the first locomotive. 
The very smallness of the country is another advantage ; for 
no matter where a factory may be located, it is near the coal 
fields and within a few miles of a shipping point. 

Woollen and Cotton Manufactures. — In the mountain- 
ous section of northern England, near both coal and wool, 
are hundreds of factories engaged in the manufacture 
of woollen cloth. The principal centre of this trade is 
Leeds, which has the added advantage of water power. 
On the western side of this hilly region is Bradford, 



THE BRITISH ISLES 187 

noted for its broadcloth and worsted goods ; and neigh- 
boring cities manufacture woollen yarn, hosiery, carpets, 
and blankets. The woollen industry extends northward 
into Scotland and southward to Leicester, whose sur- 
rounding plains produce a breed of sheep that yields a 
wool for worsted yarn. 

From the spinning and weaving of wool it was easy to 
move to cotton manufacturing ; and on the western side 
of the northern mountains we find a great cotton-manu- 
facturing industry. Dampness is one of the points in 
favor of that section, for in a dry air cotton is in danger 
of becoming too brittle to spin and weave easily. Another 
reason why this work is best developed on the west side 
of the island is the fact that it is nearer the United States, 
from which so much of the raw cotton comes. 

The centre of the cotton manufacturing is Manchester. 
What cities do you find located near by ? This portion of 
Great Britain, including southern Scotland and the two 
sides of the mountain range of northern England, is the 
seat of the greatest textile industry in the world. Can 
you name cities of New England which are likewise 
engaged in cotton and woollen manufacture ? 

In spite of the enormous number of sheep in the British 
Isles, the manufacturing industry has so far outgrown the 
local supply of wool that millions of pounds must be imported 
every year. This condition resembles that of New England, 
where much of the wool is brought from Ohio and more western 
states, as well as from foreign countries. As to cotton, since 
the British climate will not permit its cultivation, it is necessary 
to import about two billion pounds a year to supply the mills. 
Although much cotton is now obtained from Egypt, India, and 
other parts of the British Empire, our Southern States still 
supply the greatest quantity. 



188 EUROPE 

Iron and Steel Manufacturing. — In early times iron ore 
was mined from swamps, or bogs, in England and smelted 
by means of charcoal, as bog iron ore was mined and 
smelted in New England during Colonial times.. The 
value of coal in smelting was not discovered until the 
eighteenth century ; but since the discovery of this use 
of coal, a great iron and steel industry has grown up in 
Great Britain. 

Doubtless you can name some of the cities of the United 
States which are engaged in iron and steel work. In what 
states are they situated ? Some are near the coal fields ; 
which are they? Have you named any in New England? 
There is no coal there. Do you recall the metal manufactories 
that are most prominent in New England, and the reasons for 
their development ? 

The cities in Great Britain that are most noted for iron 
and steel products are Birmingham and Sheffield in 
England, and Glasgow in Scotland. Birmingham manu- 
factures jewelry, watches, firearms, bicycles, steam engines, 
etc. Sheffield has for centuries been distinguished for 
cutlery, the existence of grindstone quarries in the neigh- 
borhood being a partial reason for this particular industry. 
Why ? It also manufactures steel rails and armor plates 
for warships. Glasgow, on the Clyde, is a centre for 
shipbuilding and for the manufacture of locomotives and 
machinery of various kinds. 

In cities round about these places are similar works ; and 
as in New England, many of those occupied with the textile 
industry also produce textile machinery and other iron and 
steel goods. The island is so small that coal and iron are 
cheaply shipped to various points ; and on this account, manu- 
facturing, though best developed near the coal fields, is not 
confined to these districts. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



189 



Thus we see that here, as in the United States, coal 
makes possible an enormous industrial development. But 
in spite of the forest of chimneys in England and southern 
Scotland, the output of coal is more than sufficient to meet 
the demands. The materials to be manufactured, how- 
ever, are not sufficient ; for all the cotton, much of the 
wool, and part of the iron ore must be imported. 

These three industries, connected with cotton, wool, 
and iron, have made Great Britain one of the great work- 




Fig. 133. 

The Clyde, at Glasgow. 



shops of the world. The most important is cotton manu- 
facturing ; iron ranks next, and wool is third. 

Ireland. — Ireland forms a striking contrast to Great 
Britain in several respects. In the first place it is mainly 
a country of farms instead of manufactures. The mild 
climate and damp atmosphere insure excellent grass 
throughout the year, and about four-fifths of the farm 
land is in pasture. It follows, therefore, that great num- 
bers of cattle, sheep, and horses are raised. As in Great 



190 EUROPE 

Britain, the principal grain is oats ; but barley, wheat, 
potatoes, and turnips are also raised. 

Again, unlike Great Britain, Ireland is very barren of 
minerals. Building stones, such as granite, marble, and 
sandstone, are found, but there is extremely little coal or 
iron. For that reason, whatever manufacturing has been 
developed is located chiefly on the eastern side, where 




Fig. 134. 

The famous lakes of Killarney in the hilly part of southwestern Ireland. 
They are formed where glacial drift has obstructed the drainage. 

coal is easily obtained from England or Scotland. At 
one point the two islands are only thirteen miles apart. 

The lack of coal for use in the homes is partly made up by 
the abundance of " turf " or peat. Owing to the deposits of 
glacial drift, which have obstructed the streams (Fig. 134), the 
level interior is so poorly drained that marshes or bogs occupy 
about one-twelfth of the entire surface of the island. The 
water in these bogs protects the swamp vegetation from decay, 
so that it accumulates, forming a sod, which, when dug up and 
dried, makes a fairly good fuel. It will be remembered that 



THE BRITISH ISLES 191 

similar deposits, in the larger swamps of the Coal Period, 
caused the coal beds which are now of so much value (p. 153). 

While manufacturing is little developed, there is one 
kind that nourishes in Ireland ; namely, the making of 
linen. The Irish linens, which take high rank in our 
country, are made from the inner bark of the flax plant. 
Flax is grown in various parts of the United States, but 
mainly for the sake of the seed, from which linseed oil is 
made for use in mixing paints and in making varnish. 
In Ireland, however, flax is raised chiefly for its fibre. 

The damp climate of Ireland is favorable to the growth of 
flax, and the cheap labor makes possible the great amount of 
care required in preparing it for the manufacture of linen. 
The stem of flax is tall and slender, and a field of it presents 
somewhat the same appearance as a field of oats. Instead 
of being cut, like grain, it is pulled up and left lying upon 
the ground for some time, exposed to the dew and weather, 
so that the gummy substance, which holds the woody matter 
and fibre together, may decay. After the fibre has been sepa- 
rated from the woody core by machinery, it is split and combed 
out with a steel brush and thus made ready for spinning. 

Travellers in northern Ireland in summer see field after field 
covered with flax, which is used chiefly in linen factories at 
Belfast. ■ The fibre is made into thread in much the same 
manner as cotton or wool, and this is then woven into napkins, 
tablecloths, etc. Name other articles made of linen. 

Ireland forms a third contrast to Great Britain in regard to 
population. Not only is it far less densely peopled, but the 
number of inhabitants is decreasing. Partly because of the 
unfavorable laws imposed by England, the Irish have long 
been discontented with their lot; and since the disastrous 
potato famine in 1846, they have been abandoning the coun- 
try. They have sought refuge chiefly in America, and since 
the above date, the number of inhabitants has been reduced 
from 8,000,000 to 5,000,000. 



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Location of Principal Cities. — The cities most distin- 
guished for manufacturing have already been mentioned ; 
namely, Leeds, Bradford, Manchester, Sheffield, 
Birmingham, and Glasgow. What industries are de- 
veloped in each ? 

There are other large cities along the coast ; for so much 
manufacturing calls for an enormous import of raw mate- 




Fig. 135. 
Commerce on the Thames below London Bridge. 



rials and food, as well as the export of manufactured 
goods. These cities must, therefore, be the gateways to 
and from the island. And since Great Britain lies rather 
far north, between Europe and the New World, these 
shipping points must be located on the eastern, western, 
and southern sides, at those points where the best harbors 
exist, and not far from the great industrial centres. 




Fig. 136. 
The location of London and of Liverpool. 



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First among the coastal cities to be noted is London, 
with Bristol opposite it on the west. Farther north is 
Hull, with Liverpool on the opposite side ; and in 
southern Scotland is Edinburgh, near the coast, paired 
with Glasgow on the west. On the south side the 
two most important ports are Southampton and Ports- 
mouth. What are the principal cities of Ireland ? 
Steamships, railway lines, and canals connect the various 




Fig. 137. 
The British Museum at London. 



cities, carrying immense quantities of freight. In Great 
Britain and Ireland there are nearly four thousand miles 
of canal and over twenty-one thousand miles of railway. 

London. — This city, the largest in the world, is situated 
on the Thames River. The Thames, like many other 
British rivers, has a wide, deep mouth, owing to the sink- 
ing of the land, and London is located as far inland as 
high tide allows vessels to go, or fifty miles from the 
open sea. The advantage of this position lies in the fact 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



195 



that it is in the interior of the island, yet has direct water 
communication with foreign countries. 

Before the Roman occupation the site of London was a 
fortified camp, situated on a low hill surrounded by tidal 
marshes and mud flats. The Romans maintained a ferry at 
this point ; and the building of the first London Bridge, over 
eight hundred years ago, gave the city a great start. Since 




Fig. 138. 
Windsor Castle. 



that time it has grown until Greater London now covers an 
area of 690 square miles and includes fully 6,500,000 persons. 
How does that compare with the number in Scotland ? Ire- 
land ? New York City ? 

As in all great cities, one of the principal industries is 
manufacturing, nearly all kinds of goods being made, as 
in New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. But New York, 
we know, owes its greatness largely to the fact that it is 
the gateway to a vast productive interior, while almost 



196 EUROPE 

any point in England can be reached by rail from London 
in a few hours. Nevertheless, although Great Britain is 
small, its population is nearly one-half as great as that of 
the United States, and the port of London is the point of 
entrance for much of their food. 

In fact, this is the greatest shipping point in the world. Its 
rows of piers extend twenty miles down the river, and its rail- 
ways radiate in all directions (Fig. 136). However, the fact 
that London lacks coal and iron near at hand, places it at 
some disadvantage compared with Liverpool and Glasgow. 

London is not so noted for its export of manufactured goods 
as some of the ports nearer the great manufacturing cities; but 
it is the chief centre for imports. For example, nearly all the 
tea and wine used in Great Britain enter London. The great 
warehouses are filled with goods from all climes, — ■ as flour, 
sugar, meat, tobacco, hides, and cocoanuts, — and many thou- 
sands of men are employed in them. Among the interesting 
sights of London are the wine-cellars, which occupy many acres 
of space underground and, like a city, are divided up into 
streets and lighted by gas. 

Besides being the capital of the British Empire (Fig. 
142), which is the name applied to the United Kingdom 
and its dependencies, London is the centre for the publi- 
cation of books and magazines, and is provided with noted 
picture galleries, libraries, museums, and many magnificent 
buildings. Its wealth and trade are so extensive that it 
has been the money centre of the world, though New 
York, the money centre of the United States, now rivals 
it. The leading bank, called the Bank of England, is the 
agent of the government in many of its business transac- 
tions and employs about a thousand persons. 

Being a very old city, many of the London streets are nar- 
row and crooked. Some of the principal streets are too narrow 



THE BRITISH ISLES 197 

for street cars, so that, unlike American cities, the people have 
to be transported mainly by omnibuses. One of the largest 
companies runs thirteen hundred buses, and employs five thou- 
sand men and fifteen thousand horses. However, an under- 
ground railway, which encircles the great city, running under 
houses and streets, carries an enormous number of passengers. 
Near London are many places of interest. Just below the 
city, on the south side of the river, is the Greenwich observa- 
tory, from which meridians of longitude are numbered and 
time is regulated. A few miles up the river is Windsor Castle 
(Fig. 138), the palace of the sovereigns of the Empire. Find 
Cambridge and Oxford (Fig. 136), the two leading university 
towns of Great Britain. 

Other English Cities. — Southwest of London, on the 
coast, is Southampton, where ocean steamers from the 
United States often stop (Fig. 143), and where fast 
trains wait to convey passengers to the metropolis. 
Close to Southampton is Portsmouth, which has a 
great navy yard. 

Almost due west of London, at the mouth of the Severn 
River, is Bristol, which is engaged in the lumber trade and 
in the manufacture of tobacco and chocolate. It was formerly 
next to London in size, but Liverpool has now far outstripped 
it. Can you suggest some reason why ? Just west of Bristol 
is Cardiff in Wales, the chief point in Great Britain for the 
export of coal. 

Knowing the occupation of the dense population in 
northern England, we can tell the principal exports of 
Hull and Liverpool. What must they be? The 
former city naturally trades mainly with Europe, and 
the latter with the Americas and West Africa. 

Before the discovery of the New World, the west side 
of Great Britain had little commerce, and Liverpool 



198 



EUROPE 



(Fig. 136), therefore, had little business or growth. But, 
with the settlement of America the city grew until it 
now has an immense trade with North and South Amer- 
ica, and is the third city in size in the United Kingdom. 
Many passengers from America land at this port and go 

by rail to Lon- 
don. Besides its 
commerce, Liv- 
erpool is also 
important for 
its shipbuild- 
ing. What cir- 
cumstances are 
favorable to that 
industry? A 
ship canal, about 
thirty-five miles 
in length, has 
recently been 
built to Man- 
chester, at an 
expense of 
175,000,000. 

Cities of Scot- 
land. — Glas- 
gow, on the 
western side of 
the lowland plain of southern Scotland, is not only a great 
manufacturing centre (p. 188), but it is also a leading 
shipping point for the same reasons that Liverpool is. 
State them. Fifty years ago the Clyde could be forded 
at this place ; but it has been deepened by dredging until 




Fig. 139. 
The churchyard described in Gray's Elegy. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



199 



the largest vessels now enter (Fig. 133), and the popu- 
lation has so increased that the city is now next to 
London in size. What must be some of its principal 
imports and exports? Why? 

Edinburgh, unlike the other great cities named, is 
neither a shipping point nor an important manufacturing 
centre. It is distinguished as the capital of Scotland, and 
one of the most beautiful cities of the British Isles. Its 




Fig. 140. 
Kenilworth Castle, described by Scott iu " Kenilworth." 



importance is historical rather than commercial ; for in 
the early days it commanded the entrance to the lowland 
of southern Scotland. The well-known University of 
Edinburgh is situated here. Leith, a short distance 
away, is the port for Edinburgh. 

Farther north on the coast are the important ports of Dun- 
dee and Aberdeen (p. 183). The former sends forth a num- 
ber of Arctic whaling vessels each year, and is also engaged in 
the manufacture of linen and other textiles. 

Cities of Ireland. — The principal cities of Ireland are 



200 



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on the east and south sides. Why ? What has already- 
been said about Belfast? (p. 191). It is also noted for 
its shipbuilding. Dublin, the capital and largest city, 
and the chief port for the English trade, ships farm and 
other products to England, and receives manufactured 
goods in return. Queenstown has a fine harbor, and is 
a stopping point for some of the vessels bound from 
America to Great Britain. 



Scenery. — The number of places of interest and beauty in 
the British Isles is very great. This is of advantage, not 

merely to the Brit- 
ish, but also to the 
large number of 
tourists from 
other countries 
who visit the isl- 
ands. 

One of the most 
attractive parts is 
the Lake District 
in northwestern 
England; another 
is the Killarney 
Lakes in Ireland 
(Fig. 134); and 

there is so much 
Shakespeare's house at Stratford-on-Avon. Since this coast andsomuch 
picture was taken, the house has been somewhat ' 

changed in appearance. ni Hy country, 

that the variety 
of views and of means of entertainment is very great. The 
fact that distances are so short that desirable points are readily 
reached, is important for the many who have little money, but 
need a restful vacation. 

There are also many historic places which are visited by 
great numbers. Among these may be mentioned the home of 







Jm 


« " ■■ft 


"I-; -U;« « !=L3|: 


mmiM-.-'^ 


fjL-'jr 


Ety^ 




Hull 


1 flnBMin Isiiil 



THE BRITISH ISLES 201 

Shakespeare (Fig. 141) ; many cathedrals ; and the ruins of 
castles, the ancient homes of noblemen (Figs. 132 and 140). 

Fuller Reasons for the Greatness of the British Empire. — 
While we have learned many facts about the British 
Isles, some important questions are not yet fully answered. 
For example, why does this little country possess more 
colonies (Fig. 142) than any other nation of the earth ? 
Further, why should it have the greatest foreign trade ? 
And why the greatest number of vessels upon the sea ? 

Some of the reasons in answer to these questions are as 
follows. The fact that Great Britain is so small — it is 
impossible to find a point more than seventy miles from 
the salt water — is a reason why many of the British 
have been sailors. It is not surprising, therefore, that 
they have produced many explorers, such as the Cabots 
who sailed from Bristol, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir Walter 
Raleigh. What parts of the world did they explore? 

Nor is it to be wondered at that, as these explorers dis- 
covered new parts of the world, they laid claim to them 
in the name of their mother country. In this way, and 
by war, Great Britain came into possession of the Thir- 
teen Colonies of North America, Canada, India, Australia, 
much of Africa, and many other places (Fig. 142). At 
present her territory includes about one-fifth of the land 
surface of the globe and one-fourth of its inhabitants. 

These colonies and dependencies help to explain Great 
Britain's enormous foreign commerce ; for the colonies 
have found it more advantageous to trade with the mother 
country than with other nations speaking a different lan- 
guage and having less understanding of them or sym- 
pathy with them. They sell to her their raw products, 
including food, and she in return sends to them clothing, 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



203 



steel goods, and other manufactured articles. It is largely 
the exchange of goods with these colonies that has made 
the foreign trade of Great Britain nearly twice that of 
any other nation. Next to her colonies Great Britain's 
greatest trade is with the United States. 

Some of the reasons why this little island should own 
more vessels than any other nation have already appeared. 
In fishing, exploring, and making settlements, a large 




Fig. 143. 

The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, a German steamship which makes a stop at 
Southampton. It is one of the largest steamships, cost $2,500,000, and 
consumes ahout 500 tons of coal a day. The crew numbers about 500. 

number of ships have been needed ; and for the proper 
defence of her widely distributed colonies many warships 
have been required. Another reason for so large a navy 
is the fact that the British Isles are cut off from all other 
nations by water. They must, therefore, rely rather upon 
warships for defence than upon a standing army. 

Further than this, the British are actually forced to 
own many ships. Here are over forty million people 
living on two small islands, from whose soil it is impossi- 
ble to obtain the necessary food. They must send ships 



204 



EUROPE 



away for their flour, meat, sugar, coffee, etc.; and they 
must send abroad for much of their raw material for 
manufacture. Also in order to pay for the raw materials 
and food, their manufactured goods must be shipped to 
all parts of the world; otherwise their extensive manu- 
facturing would be impossible. 

These facts show why a very large number of vessels must 
be employed ; and there are two reasons why the British, 

rather than other nations, should 
own them. In the first place, 
such trade is profitable. In the 
second place, when they own 
their own vessels they can send 
them where they will, and are, 
therefore, independent in case of 
war. 

These facts, coupled with 
the remarkable energy of the 
British, are the principal 
reasons why the United King- 
dom greatly surpasses all other 
nations in the number of her 
warships and merchant ves- 
sels. To illustrate the im- 
mense importance of the 
shipping interests of Great 
Britain it may be stated that 
every day in the year there 
are said to be fully a thousand 
ships entering her ports. 

Few persons appreciate the 
magnitude of a single large steamship, or its carrying power 
and cost (Figs. 143 and 144). Measure off a distance out of 




Fig. 144. 
The same steamer as in Figure 143, to 
show its great size in comparison 
with a high building in New York 
City and with the Washington 
Monument (555 feet high). The 
length of this steamer is 648 feet, 
its width 66 and its depth 43 feet. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



205 



doors as long as the steamship in Figure 144. Compare it 
with the length of an ordinary freight car. This vessel is able 
to accommodate about two thousand persons besides the crew, 
and an enormous amount of freight in addition. 

Government. — The government of the United Kingdom 
is a limited monarchy, the present ruler being King 
Edward VII. We know that in the United States our 




Fig. 145. 
The House of Parliament. 



general laws are made at Washington by a Congress com- 
posed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. In the 
United Kingdom the law-making body corresponding to 
this is called Parliament. It is likewise composed of two 
bodies, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 

The House of Lords is made up of men with inherited 
titles who are not elected by the people. In former times the 
Lords were so powerful that the people had little control of 
the government ; but for many generations their power has 
been restricted, and the House of Commons, whose members 



206 EUROPE 

are elected by popular vote, is now by far the more important. 
Through them the people are able to make their own laws, and 
the government is therefore one of great freedom. 

While the sovereign is nominally the executive, like our 
President, the execution of laws is really in charge of a Cabi- 
net composed of a Prime Minister and several other Ministers, 
who are responsible to the House of Commons for their actions. 
If the Ministers lose the support of the House, they are obliged 
to resign ; and then others are appointed who will carry out 
the wishes of the people. 

That this government is highly satisfactory is proved 
by the fact that there is little desire on the part of the 
many British colonies to sever their connection with the 
mother country. Undoubtedly either Canada or Aus- 
tralia could, if it chose, separate itself from the mother 
country. But the mutual protection which their union 
furnishes, and the advantages of trade which it offers, 
prohibit any serious thought of such action. Most of 
the British colonists, therefore, form a loyal part of the 
British Empire, always ready to support the government 
and proud of their citizenship. 

Review Questions. — (1) Relate the early history of the British 
Isles. (2) Give their location. Their area. (3) What noteworthy 
facts about their importance ? (4) Tell about their climate. (5) Their 
physiography. (6) The effects of the ice sheet. (7) The coast line. 
(8) What two common industries are little developed in these islands? 
Why? (9) Why is so much of the land in grass? (10) Tell about 
the live stock. (11) What crops cannot be raised ? Why? (12) What 
are the principal farm products? (13) What disadvantage do the 
people suffer in regard to food supply ? (14) Give the principal facts 
about the fishing industry. (15) What metals are found in small 
quantities? (16) How about the abundance of coal and iron ore? 
(17) Locate the chief coal fields in Great Britain. (18) Name the 
sections of the United States that are noted for iron ore. (19) Tell 
about the iron ore in Great Britain. (20) Name other important 
mineral products. (21) Give reasons for the development of textile 



THE BRITISH ISLES 207 

manufacturing in Great Britain. (22) What cities are especially 
noted for the manufacture of woollen goods ? (23) For cotton ? 
(24) Tell about the manufacture of iron and steel goods. (25) What 
about the farm products of Ireland? What about minerals there? 
(26) About manufacturing? (27) What is used for fuel ? (28) Tell 
about the linen industry of Ireland. (29) About the population. 
(30) Name and locate the cities in Great Britain that are distinguished 
for manufacturing. (31) Name and locate the principal coast cities. 

(32) Tell about London : its location, principal kinds of business, etc. 

(33) What noted palaces are nearby? (34) Tell about each of the 
other cities mentioned. Locate each. (35) What can you say about 
the scenery of the British Isles ? (36) Give some reasons why the 
British Isles have more colonies than any other country. (37) Why 
more foreign trade ? (38) Why the greatest number of vessels ? 
(39) Tell about their government. 

Suggestions. — (1) On a sketch map of Great Britain mark the 
position of the highlands and lowlands. (2) Considering the prevail- 
ing winds, which side of the great cities must be most free from smoke ? 
(3) Why are sheep able to eat shorter grass than cattle? (4) Make 
a list of goods made out of flax, and place samples in the school 
cabinet. (5) Write a paper telling in what ways the people of the 
British Isles and the United States depend on one another. (6) State 
ways in which New England and Great Britain resemble each other. 
(7) Talk with some Irishman to see how he feels toward England, 
and why. (8) What names of British cities have you met in your 
study of the United States ? In what portions of the United States 
are they? (9) Collect pictures of scenes in the British Isles. (10) What 
books have you read which describe the scenery or the people of these 
islands ? (11) Find out other facts about the large steamships. 
(12) What advantages do you see in the fact that the British Isles are 
near the continent, yet separated by water? (13) Read in George 
Eliot's "Silas Marner" for a description of old-fashioned manufac- 
turing by hand looms. (14) Also in "John Halifax, Gentleman," 
for an account of the introduction of steam into the factories. (15) 
Read Gray's " Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard." (16) Read 
Scott's " Kenilworth." (17) Find out some fa,cts about Queen 
Victoria. 



XL THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM 



Map Questions (Fig. 154). — (1) Compare the area of the 
Netherlands with that of Belgium ; with that of Great Britain. 

(2) Compare the coast lines of the Netherlands and Belgium. 

(3) What large river crosses the Netherlands? Through what coun- 
tries does it pass ? (4) What countries border the Netherlands ? 
(5) Belgium ? (6) Make an outline map of these two countries. 

The Netherlands (Hollakd) 

Physiography. — Figure 146 shows the Netherlands to 
be a peculiar country. The greater portion is very low, 

and some parts are as 
much as fifteen feet be- 
low sea level. In fact, 
if protection against sea 
and river were not pro- 
vided, about one-half of 
the surface would be 
occasionally or perma- 
nently under water. 
This explains why the 
country, sometimes 
called Holland, is more 
commonly known as the 
Netherlands, a word 
meaning low country. 

The Khine has brought 
much of the soil, some of it, 
no doubt, all the way from the Alps. A large part of the country 
is, in fact, a delta of sand and clay built by the Khine, and it 

208 




Map to show the portion of the Netherlands 
that is below sea level. 



THE NETHERLANDS 209 

is so low and level that over much of the surface the only nota- 
ble elevations are either sand dunes, thrown up by the wind, 
or glacial moraines of sand and gravel. In Figure 114 notice 
how far the ice sheet reached in this section. Hard rocks are 
found only in the eastern and southeastern parts, where the 
highest point is a little over a thousand feet. 

In so level a country there can be little water power ; 
and little mineral wealth may be expected in the soft 
clays and sands. Some iron is found in the bogs, which 
are extensive, and a small amount of coal is mined in the 
extreme southeast. Under the circumstances, is there 
promise of much manufacturing ? 

Owing to all these disadvantages the Netherlands 
might seem to be incapable of supporting a large popula- 
tion. Nevertheless that country has about two-thirds as 
many inhabitants as the remarkably productive state of 
New York, which is four times as large. 

People and Government. — Perhaps the leading explana- 
tion of this prosperity is the high character of the Dutch 
people, as the Netherlander are called. For centuries 
they have felt an intense love for civil and religious lib- 
erty ; but, being a small nation, they have suffered many 
hardships in attempting to establish independence and 
tolerant laws. At one time they were under German 
control ; later they came under the cruel rule of Spain ; 
but finally they obtained their independence, and their 
form of government is now a limited monarchy. 

While their belief in freedom brought them untold suffer- 
ing, it was a cause of progress as well. It was to Holland 
that the Pilgrims first fled when religious persecutions drove 
them from England ; and from time to time large numbers of 
Huguenots, Germans, and others found refuge there. These 



210 



EUROPE 



immigrants, who were persecuted and driven from home be- 
cause of their advanced ideas, have nearly always been among 
the most enlightened people of Europe. Their settlement in 
the Netherlands therefore had a great influence on the intelli- 
gence with which Dutch industries were developed. 

Agriculture. — Agriculture, including grazing, is the 
principal industry of the kingdom, although, largely on 
account of swamps and sand dunes, a fifth of its area is 
waste land. The principal farm products are grains, such 




Fig. 147. 
A farm scene on the plains of Holland. 

as rye, oats, wheat, barley, and buckwheat ; also potatoes, 
sugar beets, beans, peas, and flax. More land is devoted 
to pasturage (Fig. 147) than to these crops, partly because 
much of the higher land is too sandy for cultivation, and 
partly because the moisture in the lowlands aids in the 
growth of excellent grass (Fig. 147). Cattle, hogs, sheep, 
and horses are raised in great numbers ; and quantities of 
butter and cheese are made. 

Reclaimed Land. — There is, of course, good reason why the 
Dutch have been willing to endure the labor and danger in-. 



THE NETHERLANDS 211 

volved in reclaiming large tracts of land from the sea. As the 
population increased, and the need of new farm land grew, it 
was found possible to keep the high tides and rivers from 
overflowing the salt marshes and flood plains. In this way 
the people have added large areas of fertile land, and have 
also been encouraged to undertake the even more difficult task 
of reclaiming the shallow sea bottom. 

Such drainage began in the twelfth century and has con- 
tinued until the present day. It has already about doubled 
the area of the Netherlands, and now a scheme is under way 
to reclaim the Zuider Zee itself (Fig. 146). 

The first step in reclaiming a section of land is to build dikes 
or embankments around it. Then the water is pumped from 
the enclosure and emptied into the rivers or the sea. Wind- 
mills were formerly employed for pumping, and many are still 
in use (Fig. 147) ; but more recently steam pumps have been 
introduced. And since they run all the time, while windmills 
work only when the wind blows, the use of steam has made it 
possible to drain areas which could not have been kept dry by 
windmills alone. It has sometimes required years, after the 
dikes were finished, to pump all the water out of a portion of 
land prepared for drainage. Even then pumping must be con- 
tinued in order to keep out the water which falls as rain and 
that which soaks through the soil. 

The ditches for draining the land really form canals, which, 
by means of their embankments, enclose houses, gardens, and 
fields, much as fences or stone walls enclose houses and gar- 
dens in other countries. They are so numerous that they 
extend over the lowlands in a great network. 

On the coast the sea is kept out partly by sand dunes. 
There are also sixteen hundred miles of sea dikes for this 
purpose, besides many smaller dikes which prevent the rivers 
from overflowing the lowlands. Since the sea dikes must be 
very strong, stone is often brought from foreign countries to 
be used in their construction. They are sometimes fully three 
hundred feet thick and thirty feet high. Some idea of the 
resistance that they must offer is gained by standing behind 



ZV1 



EUROPE 



them at high tide and listening to the beating of the waves 
against the opposite side, perhaps ten feet above one's head. 

Manufacturing. — Although there is very little coal or 
water power in the kingdom, there is an abundance of 

coal near by in 
Belgium and 
Germany. It is 
also not far to 
the great coal 
fields of Eng- 
land. Estimate 
the distance 
(Fig. 154). 
Accordingly, 
since the people 
require quanti- 
ties of cloth, 
shoes, machin- 
ery, etc., they 
import coal and 
many of the 
FlG ' 148- necessary raw 

a Dutch windmill. materials and 

manufacture for themselves. The strangers who fled to the 
Netherlands to escape persecution did much toward devel- 
oping early manufacturing, and this industry now ranks 
next in importance to agriculture. 

The growth of manufacturing has also been aided by the 
efforts of the Dutch to reclaim land from the sea. The wind- 
mills, with their enclosing buildings, were valuable not merely 
as houses, storehouses, and pumps, but also for the purpose of 
grinding grain. Thus, lacking waterpower, the Putch learned 







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THE NETHERLANDS 213 

to make use of wind power to some extent. Again, in order 
to build their canals and dikes, and to drain the land, they 
needed implements, such as ploughs and pile drivers, and these 
they manufactured. Also, having an abundance of clay, and 
needing both bricks and tile in their drainage work, they 
developed manufacturing in these directions. Necessity is an 
excellent teacher, and the Dutch have had ample opportunity 
to take lessons from her. 

Commerce. — -Commerce is highly developed for several 
reasons. In the first place, the ditches, built primarily 
for purpose of drainage, are also valuable as canals ; and 
these, together with the rivers, make transportation by 
water very easy to all sections of the country. The flat- 
topped dikes also make excellent wagon roads ; and the 
level nature of the land renders the construction of tram- 
ways and railways a simple matter. Many of the railways 
connect directly with the European trunk lines. 

In the second place, the position of Holland gives her 
a distinct commercial advantage. The Netherlands lie 
directly in the path of entrance to northern Europe, and 
the country is crossed by the Rhine River, which is navi- 
gable for a long distance into Germany. Therefore much 
of the American and British trade with central Europe 
is carried on through Holland. 

Colonies. — The Dutch colonies (Fig. 193) furnish a 
third reason for an extensive development of commerce. 
Since the very earliest times the Dutch have been in close 
contact with the salt water. Not only have they battled 
with the sea in reclaiming land, but to visit some of their 
near neighbors they have been obliged to cross it. More- 
over, both the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, near at 
hand, contain many food fish ; and this fact has led to an 



214 EUROPE 

important development of the fisheries, one of the leading 
industries of the country, The men have therefore be- 
come expert sailors ; and when discoveries of new lands 
were being made, the Dutch sailors naturally shared in 
the explorations and obtained colonies. 




Fig. 149. 
A canal in Amsterdam. Notice the peculiar fronts of the Dutch houses. 

The attempt of the Dutch to colonize our Hudson valley 
was thwarted by the English ; but Holland retains possession 
of other important regions. Of these, Dutch Guiana in South 
America has already been mentioned (p. 126) ; but the most 
important are Java and several other East India islands. 
The manufacture of raw products from the colonies constitutes 
one of the principal industries of the coast cities. 

The possession of these colonies, Holland's position, her 
water and rail connections with other countries, and her 
many canals and excellent roads make the transportation 
of goods an important industry. 



THE NETHERLANDS 



215 



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H'ItHSmi 

nlrinEs 


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nrSIuKi 


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Fig. 150. 
A canal in the city of Rotterdam. 



Cities. — Amsterdam and Rotterdam are the two 
principal commercial centres. The former, the largest 
city in the Neth- 
erlands, is about 
the size of Balti- 
more. It is con- 
nected with the 
ocean by canal, 
and is noted for 
its university and 
museums, as well 
as its shipping, 
manufacturing, 
and diamond cut- 
ting. The dia- 
monds are brought in the rough from the great diamond 
fields of South Africa, where the Dutch were formerly 
in control, and at Amsterdam they are cut and polished 
ready for setting. 

The rulers of Holland are crowned at Amsterdam, 
although the capital is The Hague, where the govern- 
ment buildings are situated. Because of the sea breezes, 
and the excellent bathing in the shallow water on the 
long sandy beach near by, The Hague is also noted as a 
summer resort. 

Rotterdam (Fig. 150), next to Amsterdam in size, 
is the great seaport of the Netherlands. Its location near 
the mouth of the Rhine makes it one of the principal 
ports for the interior of the continent, and explains 
why it is the European terminus for some of the great 
steamship lines from New York and other parts of the 
world. 



216 EUROPE 

Belgium 

Physiography. — The surface of Belgium forcibly re- 
calls that of Holland. The land is low and flat in the 
northern and western parts, and gradually rises and 
grows more rolling toward the south and east. 

However, the highest point in Belgium (2230 feet) is 
more than twice that in the Netherlands. Instead of 
being caused by glacial moraines and sand dunes, this 
highland is a mountainous region, formed by upheaval 
of the earth's crust (Fig. 151). The weathering of ages, 
which has worn these mountains so low, has revealed 
valuable mineral deposits, especially coal and iron, which 
fortunately occur near together, as in England. Lead, 
zinc, and silver are also obtained. 

Belgium, therefore, possesses agricultural advantages 
similar to those of Holland, while the minerals secure 
opportunities for manufacturing far superior to those of 
the Dutch. These facts help to explain why, although 
Belgium is even smaller than Holland, its population is 
one-fourth larger, or about 6,500,000. How does that 
compare with the population of New York state ? Indeed, 
the small country of Belgium is one of the most densely 
populated regions on the earth. Figure out the number 
of inhabitants per square mile and compare it with the 
number in New York, or in your own state. 

People and Government. — Like the Dutch, the Belgians 
have endured untold sufferings in their long struggle 
for independence. Their country has been, to some 
extent, a battlefield for the larger countries or powers of 
Europe ; for example, the battle of Waterloo, by which the 
career of Napoleon Bonaparte was ended, was fought 



BELGIUM 



217 



there in 1815. Since 1830, however, the Belgians have 
been independent. Their form of government is a limited 
monarchy. 




Fig. 151. 
A view in the hilly section of southern Belgium. 

The intelligence of the Belgians is of the highest order. 
Even during the Middle Ages their woollen manufactures were 
the best developed in Europe, and at various times the kings 
of England have induced Belgian artisans to move to England 
for the purpose of improving the factory work. Since the 
great nations of Europe have declared Belgium neutral terri- 
tory, thus prohibiting further fighting there, the people have 
found it necessary to keep only a small standing army, and 
have devoted themselves to the industries. As a result, Bel- 
gium has enjoyed a wonderful industrial growth. 

Agriculture. — A very small part of Belgium is below 
sea level ; but, as in the Netherlands, much of the country 



218 



EUROPE 




is so flat and fertile that a view on the Belgian plain 
would closely resemble that in Figure 147. More than 

half the inhabitants are 
engaged in agriculture, 
the chief products, be- 
sides live stock, being 
grain, flax, hemp, fruit, 
and sugar beets. 
Among the farm ani- 
mals, the Flemish 1 
horses are especially 
noted for their great 
size and strength. 

The Belgian method of 
farming forms a striking 
contrast to that in the 
United States; for, in- 
stead of ranging from one 
hundred to several thousand acres, farms in Belgium usually 
contain not more than two or three acres. To a large extent, 
spading takes the place of ploughing, and such hand labor, 
guided by the experience of many generations, secures large 
yields of the best quality. Flemish flax is the best in the 
world. In spite of such careful cultivation of the soil much 
food has to be imported, as in Great Britain. 

Mining and Manufacturing. — Quite distinct from the 
level northern plain, close set with farms and towns, is 
the hilly region of the southern angle (Fig. 15-1), covered 
with forests and rich in minerals. More than one hundred 
thousand men are engaged in mining, and coal and coke 

1 Derived from Flanders, a former country of Europe which included 
a part of the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Nearly half the Belgians 
speak the Flemish language. 






Fig. 152. 
A dog team in Belgium. 



BELGIUM 219 

are among the leading exports. Around the northwest 
slope of the hilly region is located one of the world's busiest 
industrial regions. As in England, there are three impor- 
tant kinds of manufacturing, namely cotton, wool, and 
iron and steel. Linen and glass are also made. But the 
country is so small, and there are so many waterways and 
railways, — as in the Netherlands, — that coal is transported 
cheaply to all sections. Manufacturing, therefore, is well 
distributed, although the coal comes from the southern 
portion. 

Commerce. — By its position Belgium secures many of 
the advantages that Holland enjoys ; that is, it is a gate- 
way to and from the interior of Europe. To be sure, 
its coast line is only about forty miles in length and the 
water there is shallow ; but Antwerp has an excellent 
harbor. There is no large river like the Rhine in 
Holland, but two smaller streams, rising in France, are 
navigable for some distance. There is also an extensive 
system of canals. Besides these waterways, Belgium has 
more miles of railway, for its size, than any other country 
in Europe ; and the railways are closely connected with 
the large trunk lines. For these reasons transportation 
of goods is one of the leading industries in Belgium. 

While the Belgians do not possess such valuable colonies as 
the Dutch, they have been prominent in African exploration. 
It was the Belgian king who sent Stanley to Africa, and the 
King of Belgium is sovereign of Kongo State. 

Cities. — Brussels, the capital and largest city, situated 
in the heart of the kingdom, is about the size of Boston. 
The name Brussels carpets suggests one of its industries ; 
but carriage making and lace making are at present among 
its most important kinds of manufacture. It is an intel- 



220 



EUROPE 



lectual as well as a political and commercial centre, hav- 
ing numerous picture galleries, museums, and schools. 

Antwerp, next in size, is situated about sixty miles 
from the sea, on a small river. Some of the great steam- 
ship lines from New York have their European terminus 
there, and the port is one of the most important on the 




Fig. 153. 
A view in Ghent. Notice the peculiar architecture of the houses. 

continent. The leading kinds of manufacturing are sugar 
refining, distilling, lace making, and shipbuilding. 

Many other cities are distinguished for manufacturing. 
The largest are Liege, the "Birmingham of Belgium," en- 
gaged in the manufacture of firearms, cutlery, glass, and 
various kinds of machinery; and Ghent (Fig. 153), noted 
for linen and cotton goods, and for machinery. 

Luxemburg, on the southeastern border of Belgium, is a 
small duchy governed by a hereditary grand duke and a par- 



BELGIUM 221 

liament. Like Belgium, by agreement of the powers of Europe, 
it is neutral territory. Agriculture, iron mining, and manu- 
facturing are the principal industries. 

Review Questions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Tell about the 
physiography of Holland. (2) What are the principal mineral prod- 
ucts? (3) How does Holland compare with New York in size and 
population? (4) Tell about the people; the government; agriculture. 
(5) State i-easons for reclaiming the land. (G) Tell how it is done. 
(7) What has aided the development of manufacturing? (8) Give 
three reasons for the extensive development of Dutch commerce. 

(9) How have the Dutch come to have several important colonies? 

(10) Name the principal colonies. (11) Tell about the chief cities. 
Belgium. — (12) Compare Belgium with Holland as to physi- 
ography. (13) Tell about the importance of Belgium; its people 
and government ; its agriculture ; its mining and manufacturing. 
(14) What reasons are there for its important commerce? (15) What 
about colonies? (16) Locate and tell about each of the cities. (17) 
What about Luxemburg? 

Suggestions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Why are the winds 
likely to blow with special force and regularity across Holland? 
(2) Why is this fact of value to the Dutch ? (3) What effect must 
the winds have upon the rank vapors that rise from the damp soil ? 

(4) What do you know about the flower gardens of the Dutch? 

(5) Have you seen any Dutch pottery, especially Delft wares? 

(6) Why did not the Pilgrims remain in Holland instead of coming 
to America? (7) Why should not Rotterdam be as large a city as 
New York? (8) Find out about the Peace Conference of 1899 at 
The Hague. (9) What reasons are there for selecting a small country 
like Holland for this purpose, and for making treaties between nations 
which have been at war ? 

Belgium. — (10) There are greater extremes of temperature in 
Belgium than in England. Why? (11) Find out some facts about 
the battle of Waterloo. (12) Give several reasons for spading instead 
of ploughing land. (13) Examine a piece of lace. From what mate- 
rial is lace manufactured, and how is the work done? (14) Towns 
in Belgium usually have .two names. Why? (15) Would you ex- 
pect fishing to be as important an industry with the Belgians as with 
the Dutch? Why? 



XII. FRANCE 



Map Questions (Fig. 154). — (1) France is the nearest country to 
the British Isles. Estimate the distance. (2) Compare the two 
countries as to area. (3) As to population. (4) What waters 
border France? (5) What countries? (6) In what respects is its 
position favorable to commerce? (7) What do you observe about 
the general direction of the rivers ? (8) Locate the island of Corsica, 
a part of France. 

People and Government. — The early inhabitants of 
France, called Gauls, were conquered by the Romans 
(p. 165), who taught them their language and many of 
their customs. After the fall of Rome, France, like 

most European 
countries, was 
divided into in- 
dependent king- 
do m s, which 
were often at 
war with one 
another or with 
neighboring 
countries. 

The situation 
of France has, 
however, tended 
to bring the 
kingdoms together ; for the country is enclosed on 
two sides by the sea, and elsewhere, in large part, by 
mountains. Notice how completely the Pyrenees — which 




Fig. 155. 
A valley on the French side of the Pyrenees. 




Fig. 154. 



FRANCE 



223 



range from six thousand to ten thousand feet in height 
— separate France from Spain ; and notice what a barrier 
the lofty Alps form along the Italian and Swiss bounda- 
ries. Even north of the Alps, a part of the boundary is 
formed by high- 
lands. While the 
inhabitants were 
thus protected 
from invasion, 
there were few 
barriers within 
France itself that 
kept them apart. 
It was not diffi- 
cult, therefore, to 
bring them under 
one rule. 

Monaco in the 
southeast, and An- 
dorra in the Pyre- 
nees (p. 240), are 
the only excep- 
tions. The princi- 
pality of Monaco, 
only eight square 
miles in area, is 
a noted winter re- 
sort because of the 

fine climate. Its revenue is obtained from the gambling tables 
at Monte Carlo. 

Owing partly to the close union of the people, France 
has at several periods approached first rank among 
European nations. Indeed, at the beginning of the last 




Fig. 156. 
A view in central southern France (Monts d'Au- 
vergne on the map). This is a region of extinct 
volcanoes (Fig. 158) , and the church is built upon 
a steep lava hill. 



224 



EUROPE 



century, under the lead of Napoleon Bonaparte, she was 
beyond question the most powerful of them all. Just 
previous to that time the people had developed such a 
hatred of monarchy that they rose in a mass, overturned 
the government, and formed a republic. There have been 
numerous changes since then, including a period when 
Napoleon himself was Emperor ; but in 1871 a republican 
government, somewhat like that of the United States, 




Fig. 157. 
A street scene in Nice (near Monaco), showing the nature of the vegetation in 
that warm climate. Find out whether Nice is north or south of your home. 

was once more established. This has continued down 
to the present time, and under its administration France 
still ranks as one of the six Great Powers of Europe. 

Physiography and Climate. — As we have seen, the 
chief highlands of France are in the south and southeast. 
Among these highlands the loftiest are the Alps, whose 
highest peak, Mt. Blanc (15,781 feet), is in France. Had 
the mountains stretched along the western coast, the 
history of France would have been very different. As it 



FBANCE 225 

is, the prevailing westerlies are allowed to distribute their 
rain somewhat evenly over the country, supplying all 
sections with an abundance of moisture for agriculture. 

The position of the highlands is of great importance 
for commerce as well as for farming. Fully three-fourths 
of France is a comparatively level plain sloping westward 
from the low central plateau, which rises steeply as the 
western wall of the long Rhone valley. All but one of 
the large rivers rise in this plateau and flow gently down 
its slope to the Atlantic. Thus navigation is possible 
far into the country. Locate and name the three largest 
rivers. How does the Rhone differ from the other 
two? 

As might be expected, the summers are warmer than 
in England, since France lies almost entirely south of 
that country and is less under the influence of the ocean. 
The southeastern section, though as far north as Boston, 
has a semi-tropical climate (Fig. 157), owing to the 
presence of the warm Mediterranean waters and to the 
protection from cold north winds afforded by the Alps 
(pp. 162 and 163). These facts give promise of several 
important farm products that could not thrive in England. 

Agriculture. — France is primarily a farming country, 
and nearly half the people devote their energies to agri- 
culture, including grazing. The same grains are raised 
as in England. What are they? (p. 181). Wheat is the 
most important, and more of this grain is produced than 
in any other European country excepting Russia. Yet 
France raises only about half as much wheat as the United 
States, and not nearly enough for the needs of her people. 
Grapes, not important in the British Isles, thrive in the 
warmer climate of central and southern France. 



226 



EUROPE 



Grapes form the most valuable of all French crops, and more 
are raised in France than in any other country of the world. 
This fruit, although capable of enduring severe cold, requires a 
warm summer. The distribution of the vineyards, therefore, 
shows forcibly the difference between the climates of England 
and France. Grapes do not mature well in northern France, 
but they flourish in the warm valleys from the Loire southward. 



The Rhone valley and the Mediterranean coast are 
further noted for their groves of olive, orange, and mul- 
berry trees. The latter are cultivated for the sake of 
their leaves, which are fed to the silk-worm (p. 229). 

As in other countries, the highlands, as a rule, are 
capable of little cultivation and are usually given over to 

grazing. Give 
examples from 
other countries. 
As in England, 
too, there are 
broad tracts of 
lowland which 
are better adapt- 
ed to the produc- 
tion of grass than 
to other crops. 
These facts ex- 
plain why there 
are more than 
thirteen million 
cattle and twenty-one million sheep in France. What 
does that signify in regard to manufacturing? 

Minerals. — France is quite inferior to the British Isles 
in its mineral products. Coal is the most valuable min- 




Fig. 158. 

A farm scene in southern central France. The moun- 
tain peak is an extinct volcano, one of the Monts 
d'Auvergne (Figs. 154 and 156). 



FRANCE 



227 



A: 



eral ; but while Great Britain, after supplying her many 
factories, exports a large amount of coal, France has to 
import some. The principal coal beds, from which more 
than half the output comes, lie close to Belgium. They 
are, in fact, a continuation of the deposits that were found 
to be so plentiful in that country. The other beds are 
small and scattered, but the best of them lie near the 
centre of the country, not far from St. Etiekne. Of 
what advantage is this location ? 

The quantity of iron produced is small and comes mainly 
from the northeast, near the coal fields. Fine clays for porce- 
lain abound in central France, and building stones are quarried 
in nearly every part. 

Manufacturing. — In spite of the limited supply of fuel, 
France is a great manufacturing nation. Besides silk 
and wine, in the 
production of 
which this country 
is the leading na- 
tion of the world, 
there is extensive 
manufacturing of 
metal, cotton, and 
woollen goods. 
One reason for 
these manufactures 
is the fact that coal 
is easily obtained 
either in France or 
from the neighboring countries of Belgium, Germany, and 
England. Another reason has to do with the nature of 
the people themselves. 




Fig. 159. 
A village in southern France. 



228 



EUROPE 



When considering the manufacture of cotton goods in the 
cotton belt of the United States, the statement was made that 
it required such skill to control the machinery, that the un- 
trained negroes had hitherto been little identified with cotton 
manufacturing. The English, however, possess a high degree of 
skill, and their manufactured goods have in consequence been 
both cheap and durable. It is partly on this account that they 

have developed manufacturing 
to such an enormous extent. 

But the Frenchman has, in 
addition, a peculiar apprecia- 
tion of what is graceful, deli- 
cate, and elegant. This is 
illustrated by the fact that our 
fashions in dress originate in 
France ; and a skirt, a pair of 
gloves, or a bonnet from Paris 
is expected to be a trifle more 
desirable than that bought 
elsewhere. The French have 
accordingly specialized in this 
direction ; and thus their ar- 
tistic sense has had great in- 
fluence upon both the kind 

_ and amount of their manu- 
A cliff dwelling in southern France. . . . 

There are not many of these houses ; f actunng. Their artistic taste 

hut the fact that there are any suggests is exercised less, however, upon 

how very poor some of the peasants cotton than n other d 

in List D6 

for the cotton mills are mainly 
engaged in furnishing simple, inexpensive cloth to the large 
number of peasants and other poor people. 




Wool and Cotton Manufactures. — The northern part of 
France, including Lille, Roubaix, and Reims, as well 
as cities near the mouth of the Seine, is the section 
especially noted for the woollen industry. Here coal is 



FRANCE 229 

most easily obtained ; and large numbers of sheep are 
raised on the hills and plains near by. Besides this, 
foreign wool from Argentina and Australia is easily im- 
ported at Havre and at the Belgian port of Antwerp. 
Remembering that the goods turned out — as hosiery, 
carpets, and underclothing — are of high grade, and such 
as wealthy people wish, we see that this location, between 
the two wealthiest capitals of the world, is specially ad- 
vantageous. Woollen cloths are, next to silk goods, the 
most important French export to Great Britain. 

Cotton manufacturing — mainly for the home market, 
as indicated above — is also extensively developed near 
the coal fields of northern France. An important reason 
for such work at this point is the ease with which Amer- 
ican cotton may be imported ; and this explains why 
Rouen on the Seine is a prominent centre for cotton 
goods. There are also cotton factories in eastern France, 
where water power is used instead of steam power. Why 
should there be water power in that section ? 

Silk Manufacturing Because the climate and soil of 

the Rhone valley are adapted to the mulberry tree, and 
because coal mines are near by, this section is a great silk- 
manufacturing region. Lyon is the centre, although St. 
Etienne and Paris are also noted for this industry. 

The traveller in the Rhone valley sees grove after grove 
of mulberry trees, carefully cared for in order to supply an 
abundance of leaves for the silk-worm to eat in summer. 

The silk-worm moth, at the end of the caterpillar stage, 
weaves a cocoon about itself. The material of which the co- 
coon is composed is a thread, about two miles in length, which 
must be very carefully unwound. The single strand is such 
extremely fine silk that, in order to make a fibre strong 



230 



EUROPE 



enough for spinning and weaving, it is united with severa. 
others. 

Since the worms are reared under cover, the silk industry 
may be carried on in any climate well adapted to the mulberry 
tree. It is possible, therefore, to make raw silk in many parts 
of the world; but the feeding of the worms and the trans- 
formation of the cocoons into silk for the market require 
much labor, care, and skill. On that account silk production 
is chiefly confined to those parts of the world where laborers 



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Fig. 161. 
A view looking over Paris, with the Seine in the centre of the picture. 

will accept low wages, and where, owing to generations of 
such work, habits of watchfulness and care have been devel- 
oped. China accordingly produces the greatest amount of raw 
silk ; but France, in the midst of the civilized world where the 
market for silk goods is greatest, also produces a large quantity 
and is the leading country for the manufacture of silk. Make 
as long a list of silk goods as you can. 

Other Manufactures. — \The extensive cultivation of 
grapes has been referred to. Much of the wine made from 
them is consumed at home, for in France even the day 



FRANCS 231 

laborer very often drinks wine at his meals in place of or 
mixed with water. An enormous amount of wine is also 
shipped abroad, as for example to London, whose wine 
cellars have already been mentioned (p. 196). The manu- 
facture of steel goods is important in some places, but to 
no such extent as in Great Britain. Other kinds of manu- 
facturing are mentioned under the cities. 

Paris. — Paris, the capital of France, is the largest city 
on the continent of Europe and the third largest in the 
world. It numbers more than 2,500,000 inhabitants. 

Location (Fig. 162). — As in the case of London, there 
is a definite reason for the exact site ; for an island in the 
Seine at that point made the river easier to bridge over, 
while at the same time it aided in defence. Aside from 
that, the Seine, having a slower current than the Rhone, 
and being less subject to overflows than the Loire, is 
more easily navigable than any other river in France. 
Its upper tributaries bring it into close touch with eastern 
France ; and, by the aid of canals, there is water connec- 
tion with the Loire and Saone, and with the Rhine in 
Germany. Furthermore, Paris is situated on the main 
trade route from the Mediterranean to northern and cen- 
tral France, which follows the Rhone, the Saone, and the 
Seine. In addition, Paris is located in the midst of the 
most fertile portion of the country, and not very far from 
several other densely populated countries. For these sev- 
eral reasons it has always been the principal French city. 

Paris as an Art Centre. — Reference has already been 
made to the appreciation of grace and elegance charac- 
teristic of the French people. Napoleon and other rulers 
collected art treasures from various nations, and founded 
'collections and schools which have made Paris famous. 




Fig. 162. 

To show Paris and surrounding country. Notice how closely the railways follow 

the stream valleys. Why should they ? 



FRANCE 



233 



The superiority of the city in this respect is recognized 
in America by the large number of men and women who go 
there every year 
for the study of 
art. It is not 
strange, there- 
fore, that Paris 
should be distin- 
guished the world 
over for its beauty 
as a city. The 
wide streets, the 
beautiful parks 
with their foun- 
tains and statues, 
and the fine pub- 
lic buildings and 
old royal palaces, 
are wonderfully 
attractive. Even 
the dwelling 
houses are in har- 
mony, for it is 
required by law 
that new build- 
ings must har- 
monize with those near by. Therefore one seldom sees 
an unattractive house in Paris. 

One of the old palaces, known as the Louvre, is the most 
noted art gallery in the world. It contains thousands of works 
of art, the most celebrated of all being the Venus of Melos 
(Fig. 163), discovered in 1820 on the little Greek island of Melos 




Fig. 163. 

Statues in the Louyre — the Venus de Melos at the 

farther end of the hall. 



234 EUROPE 

in the Mediterranean Sea. Among the paintings, one of the 
most famous is Raphael's Madonna and Child with St. John, 
pictures of which are often seen in our country. 

Among the many interesting suburbs of Paris is Versailles, 
where there is another palace that was erected in the days of 
royalty. It is now mainly used as a museum, and scores of 
the large rooms are decorated with the finest of paintings. It 
is among such treasures that the students of art spend much of 
their time ; and it is partly because of the beautiful surround- 
ings that many foreigners reside permanently in Paris. 

Manufactures of Paris. — Like other great cities, Paris has 
too many industries to be specially identified with any one. 
Yet the superior taste of the Parisians has led them to pay 
especial attention to the manufacture of articles which com- 
bine utility with beauty, such as jewelry, furniture, gloves, 
fashionable shoes, etc. The Sevres porcelain is made in the 
suburbs of Paris, and both this and the Limoges ware, manu- 
factured at Limoges, are celebrated for their beauty. 

Commerce of Paris. — Although so far inland, Paris 
ships more goods by water than any other French city. 
The extensive canal connections have already been men- 
tioned (p. 231). Vast sums have been spent in dredging 
the lower Seine, so that the depth of water between Rouen 
and Paris now exceeds ten feet. Small vessels can pro- 
ceed directly to Paris, but larger ships transfer their 
goods at Havre and Rouen. Besides this, the chief rail- 
ways of France radiate in all directions from Paris (Fig. 
162). All together, therefore, Paris is the political, artis- 
tic, manufacturing, and commercial centre of France. 

Other Cities. — Havre, which is almost as busy a 
harbor as Marseille, has an extensive trade in coffee 
from Brazil, and in wheat and other materials from the 
United States. Another important port is Bordeaux, on 
the Garonne River, in the midst of a fertile grape-raising 



FRANCE 



235 



district. It is the chief port for the export of French 
wines. Locate the cities previously named and tell for 
what each is important. Note especially Lyon, next to 
Paris in size, and a little smaller than Baltimore. 

The third French city in size, and its leading seaport, 
is Marseille, which is almost as large as Lyon. The 
delta of the Rhone is too marshy for a city, and Marseille 
occupies the nearest point where there is a good harbor 
and where other conditions are favorable for a town. 




Fig. 164. 

Fontainebleau, a beautiful wooded park south of Paris. 

For many centuries the Rhone valley was the principal 
gateway from the Mediterranean to much of Europe. 
One route leads to the Seine valley, and thence to Paris 
(p. 231), northern France, and Belgium. Another enters 
Switzerland through Lake Geneva, out of which the Rhone 
flows ; and still a third route leads, through an opening 
in the mountains, into the Rhine valley and Germany. 

Since Marseille is the sole good seaport for the Rhone 
valley, it is not surprising that it has long been a great ship- 
ping point for wares to and from Asia and the shores of the 



236 EUROPE 

Mediterranean. Among its chief imports are grain from 
Kussia and Italy; oil seeds of various kinds from India and 
Africa ; wines and dried fruits from the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean ; and rice, tea, spices, and silk from the East. What 
must be some of the exports ? The olives raised in the neigh- 
borhood make the refining of olive oil an important industry. 

Commerce of France. — Notwithstanding the great 
amount of internal commerce on the numerous rivers, 
canals, and railways, and notwithstanding the extensive 
foreign trade, France is not a great maritime nation like 
the United Kingdom (p. 202). In fact, her merchant 
marine is only one-tenth as large as that of the British 
Isles and three-fifths that of Norway. This is not entirely 
because of lack of acquaintance with the sea, for there are 
more French than British fishermen. The small number 
of good harbors, and the frequent and destructive wars 
during the last century, are among the reasons why France 
depends so largely upon other nations, as upon British and 
Norwegians, for vessels to carry her goods. Why is it 
safer for her to be thus dependent than for Great Britain ? 

Colonies (Fig. 193). — On the other hand, France has been 
extensively engaged in exploration. You may recall her plan 
to take possession of Canada and the Mississippi valley. A 
large number of people in the province of Quebec and in New 
Orleans — where the French made their largest settlements — 
still speak the French language. Although this territory was 
given up, France still owns two small islands near Newfound- 
land. Other possessions in the New World are French Guiana 
in South America, and some small islands in the West Indies. 

In Asia, France holds a part of Indo-China and a very small 
bit of India; and she has numerous islands in different por- 
tions of the world (Fig. 193). But her most important colo- 
nies are in Africa, as follows : (1) Algeria and Tunis, across 



FRANCE 237 

the Mediterranean ; (2) a vast area south of these countries, 
including a large part of the Sahara Desert, the Sudan, the 
upper Niger, and the country north of the Kongo River ; and 
(3) the large island of Madagascar, east of southern Africa. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the early inhabitants ; (2) the 
influence of the boundary line for unity; (3) the government; (4) the 
physiography and climate. (5) What are the principal farm products? 
(6) Which of these have been found in Great Britain? (7) Which 
have not been found there? Why? (8) Tell about the mineral prod- 
ucts. (9) Give reasons for the extensive manufacturing. (10) Tell 
about the woollen manufactures. (11) Cotton manufactures. (12) Tell 
about silk and silk manufacturing. (13) What about other manu- 
factures ? (14) Tell about Paris : its size ; location ; artistic attrac- 
tions; manufactures; commerce. (15) Tell about: (a) Havre, 
(b) Bordeaux, (c) Lyon. (16) What are the reasons for the location 
of Marseille ? For what is it important ? (17) What is there peculiar 
about the commerce of France ? (18) Tell about the colonies. 

Suggestions. — (1) What is the name of the present President of 
France? (2) Give reasons why one river, as the Loire, might be much 
more subject to overflows than another, as the Seine. (3) Examine 
Figure 114 to see if the glacier reached into any part of France during 
the Glacial Period. (4) Raise a silk-worm from the egg. (5) Examine 
a cocoon and see if you can unravel some of its thread. (6) Also un- 
ravel a piece of silk goods and examine the threads. (7) What influ- 
ence on the commerce of Marseille has the construction of railway 
tunnels through the Alps probably had? (8) The construction of the 
Suez Canal? Why? (9) Why is the present French language so dif- 
ferent from Latin, though the French formerly spoke Latin ? (10) See 
if you can find any porcelain ware from Sevres or Limoges. (11) What 
changes might be brought about in your locality if the people there 
prided themselves greatly on the beauty of the streets, houses, etc., as 
the Parisians do ? (12) What pictures of fine statuary have you seen ? 
(13) Find the names of some of the great French painters. (14) Read 
some stories from French history ; for example, the story of Roland in 
the days of Charlemagne, when the Pyrenees helped the French to keep 
the Saracens back ; the story of the French Revolution ; the story of 
Joan of Arc, etc. (15) Make an outline sketch of France, with the prin- 
cipal mountains, rivers, and cities. (16) On an outline map of the 
world, sketch in the French colonies with their names. 



XIII. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

Map Questions. (Fig. 154.) — (1) What other cities in the world 
are in about the same latitude as Madrid? (2) Compare the area 
of the Spanish peninsula with that of France (App. II.). (3) Com- 
pare the populations (App. II.). (4) Compare the directions taken by 
the rivers. (5) Judging from the map, what would you expect as to 
the number of good harbors ? (6) What has been stated about the 
temperature and rainfall in Spain? (pp. 161 and 164). (7) AVhat 
islands in the Mediterranean Sea belong to Spain ? 

People and Government. — The people of this peninsula 
once had much the same rank among nations as is now 
held by the British. Name countries that they controlled. 
Mention some noted Spanish and Portuguese explorers. 

Now, however, both Spain and Portugal are classed 
among the weaker nations of Europe ; and, strange to say, 
the very successes which they formerly attained were one 
cause of their downfall. In the first place, their many dis- 
coveries and foreign conquests withdrew large numbers of 
the most energetic citizens from the peninsula. And, in 
the second place, the vast amount of gold and silver 
brought from Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere allowed many 
of those persons remaining at home to give themselves up 
to lives of enjoyment and luxury. Thus the characters 
of the people at large were seriously undermined. 

In its earlier history Spain developed a spirit of intoler- 
ance that has also proved a serious obstacle to progress. 
Being within easy reach of Italy, the peninsula, as a 
whole, became Christianized by the Romans. But after 
the downfall of Rome, the Moors of northern Africa, who 

238 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 



239 



were Mohammedans, and therefore avowed enemies of 
Christians (p. 93), invaded Spain from Morocco, and 
conquered most of the country. 

This was about 700 a.d. ; and for nearly eight cen- 
turies after that there was almost constant warfare between 
the two peoples, the Christians maintaining themselves in 
the north, and the Mohammedans in the south of the pen- 




Fig. 165. 
The Alhambra, one of the last strongholds of the Moors. 



insula. Gradually the Moors became confined to Granada 
in the southern part ; and in 1492 they were finally over- 
come even there, and largely expelled from the country. 
The Moors were a wonderfully enlightened people, and 
they developed agriculture, industry, commerce, and archi- 
tecture to an extent the Spaniards have never equalled. 
But the long struggle between the two races and reli- 
gions, and the defence the Spaniards made, embittered 
them not only against the Moors, but also against others 
who disagreed with them in religious faith. This spirit 



240 EUROPE 

of intolerance, which has, in a measure, continued down to 
the present time, is one cause of the loss to Spain of her 
foreign territory. It led to religious persecution, which 
resulted not only in the death of many persons, but also in 
additional loss of population through the departure of 
many whose energy and industry were of great value to 
the country. Some Jews were also driven out, and 
thus the country was deprived of farmers, artificers, and 
tradesmen of higher grade than the warriors who re- 
mained. 

The mountainous character of the peninsula has been a 
third cause for the decline of Spain and Portugal. The 
various races on the peninsula, cut off from one another 
by table-lands and mountain ranges, have never been 
fairly blended into one people, as we have seen (p. 174) 
was done in Great Britain. For centuries they were 
divided into small, independent kingdoms having differ- 
ent languages. Just before the discovery of America, 
however, most of these states were brought under one 
rule by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella; and later 
even Portugal was joined to Spain. 

But Portugal, which is naturally separated from Spain 
by deep gorges and canyons, soon broke away. Also 
Andorra, a tiny country in the Pyrenees, was never fully 
conquered and is still independent ; and the union of some 
of the others has been by force rather than by choice. At 
present the parts of Spain are held together under a lim- 
ited monarchy, and the same is true of Portugal. 

Altogether, then, the lack of industry among the Span- 
ish, their pride and intolerance, and their lack of union 
have been serious drawbacks both in the government of 
colonies and in growth at home. While numerous other 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 241 

European nations have been advancing they have been 
steadily losing power. The Portuguese, however, have 
suffered much less in this respect than the Spanish. 

Physiography and Climate. — The key to many impor- 
tant facts about Spain and Portugal is found in the exten- 
sive elevation of the land. On the northern boundary 
stand the Pyrenees, continued on the west by the Canta- 
brian Mountains, while in the extreme south are the lofty 
Sierra Nevada ranges. Between these two systems is a 
broad plateau, from two to three thousand feet in eleva- 
tion, with numerous short, broken mountain ranges. 

In the Ebro valley on the northeast and the Guadal- 
quiver (meaning Great River) valley on the southwest 
there are lowlands. Point to these rivers on the map. 
The only other extensive lowland is a narrow strip near 
the sea, which reaches most of the distance around the 
peninsula. A very large proportion of the surface, there- 
fore, is made up of plateaus and mountains. 

This condition of elevated surface is important, in the 
first place, in preventing Spain from becoming a great 
thoroughfare for the transportation of goods. The posi- 
tion of the peninsula, between the two busiest seas of the 
world, and between Africa and central Europe, suggests 
that it might be a valuable route for commerce. But the 
highlands separate, rather than unite, these regions. 

The highlands have an important influence also on the_ 
climate. Owing to the elevation the interior has cold 
winters, though the summers are hot ; and because of the 
fringe of mountains, the rainfall is light everywhere 
excepting near the coast, where the vapor is condensed 
in rising over the slopes. Thus, while the northwestern 
coast receives from 30 to 60 inches of rain per year, the 



242 EUROPE 

amount decreases toward the interior until, at Madrid, 
there is a rainfall of only about 10 inches. Why so 
much rain in the northwest? The southern portion of 
Spain, like southern California, being in the horse lati- 
tudes (p. 161), is so arid that agriculture without irriga- 
tion is impossible. 

There are several other effects produced by the highlands. 
In the first place, the rivers are unnavigable ; for in descend- 
ing from the arid plateau to the coastal plains their courses 
are rapid and their volume slight. Besides that, most of them 
have cut such deep, narrow valleys, like that of our Colorado 
Canyon, that they are not only useless for irrigation but are 
even a great hindrance to communication. The Guadalquiver, 
which has a wide valley and which vessels are able to ascend as 
far as Seville, is the principal exception. 

Since the interior is so arid and rugged, it must have little 
timber, little agriculture, few people, and few roads, railways, 
and canals. With one or two exceptions, therefore, the chief 
towns are to be found along the coast. 

Agriculture and Grazing. — In one respect the elevation 
of the land is an advantage because it insures great 
variety of climate, and hence many kinds of farm prod- 
ucts. What countries of South America does this condi- 
tion call to mind? 

We may expect grazing in the uplands and among the 
mountains, as in similar rugged and arid regions else- 
where. Name some of them. Spain is noted for the 
excellent grade of its sheep and mules. There are also 
many cattle, especially in the rainy northwest ; but the 
fact that so much of the country is arid explains why 
there are many more sheep and goats than cattle. The 
sheep often wander about in flocks of ten thousand under 
the care of a number of shepherds and their dogs. In 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 



243 




Fig. 166. 
A sheep pasture at the Convent of Palos in Spain. 



summer they feed among the mountains, but in winter 
they are driven down to the more protected lowlands for 
shelter. 

Wheat is the most common crop in Spain, since it re- 
quires compara- 
tively little 
rain. 

Although a 
large amount of 
wheat is raised, 
there is far less 
than might be, 
since so many of 
the Spaniards 
lack energy and 
enterprise. For 
example, they 

use antiquated methods of farming, such as rude wooden 
ploughs drawn by oxen, and sickles for cutting the grain by 
hand. Horses and goats are employed in threshing to tramp 
the wheat kernel from the chaff, as is done in New Mexico 
and Spanish countries south of the United States. 

In many of the valleys where irrigation is possible, and 
especially on the lowlands along the coast, the farmers are 
more progressive and prosperous. Besides wheat, barley, rye, 
and corn are raised, and these are among the staple foods of 
the people. Quantities of grapes are also grown in Spain and 
Portugal; and in the southern part of the peninsula the bark 
of the cork oak is a source of income to both countries. 

The arid southeastern coast is wonderfully productive. 
One reason is the warm climate, due to the influence of the 
Mediterranean ; another is the number of mountain streams, 
which, though useless for navigation, are extremely valuable 
for irrigation. Some of the products of this section, besides 
wheat and corn, are cotton, grapes, olives, figs, dates, oranges, 



244 



EUROPE 



lemons, and rice. Several crops of some products may be 
raised in a year. But the development of the region, with its 
admirable irrigation works, is the result of the genius and 
energy of the Moors, rather than of the Spaniards. 

Mining. — Spain is remarkably rich in minerals. Lead 
and silver are mined in the upper valley of the Guadal- 
quiver, and along the southeastern coast. Some distance 
northeast of Seville a large quantity of quicksilver, or 




Fig. 167. 
A wooden-wheeled ox cart, to illustrate the backwardness of the Spaniards. 

mercury, is obtained. Northwest of Seville, and in 
southern Portugal, are some noted copper mines which 
are worthy of comparison with the copper mines in 
northern Michigan and Butte, Montana. Coal and iron 
ore are found in several parts of the peninsula, but the 
largest output of each occurs on the northern slope of 
the Cantabrian Mountains (Fig. 168). Spain produces 
more quicksilver than any other country, and is exceeded 
only by the United States in the output of copper and 
lead. 

Here, however, as in other industries, the character of the 
people prevents proper development of the resources. Much 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 



245 



of the benefit from the mines is due to the capital and 
enterprise of foreigners ; the English and French are in con- 
trol of the copper 



mines, and the 
Rothschilds own 
the quicksilver. 

Manufacturing. 
■ — -From what has 
been said above it 
is apparent that 
manufacturing 
cannot flourish. 
This fact is all the 
more evident when 
we consider that 
more than two- 
thirds of the Span- 
iards, and three- 
fourth s of the 
Portuguese, cannot 

read. Thus, although they have coal beds, much of their iron 
ore, instead of being smelted at home, is shipped to the coal 
fields of Swansea in Wales to be smelted. In some places, 
however, as will, be seen in the study of the cities, there is 
manufacturing of certain kinds. 




Fig. 168. 

One of the great pits from which iron ore is obtained 
at Bilbao, Spain. 



Principal Cities of Spain. — Madrid, the metropolis 
and capital of Spain, is nearly as large as Baltimore ; 
but unlike most other large cities so far studied, it is not 
an important manufacturing centre. Why not ? The 
explanation of its size is found in its central location, and 
the fact that it is the seat of government. In crossing the 
peninsula to connect the coastal cities, all the principal 
railway lines converge at this point, and thus Madrid has 
become the intellectual and political centre of the country. 



246 



EUROPE 




To some extent, Madrid, with its wide streets, magnificent 
royal palace, and one of the finest art galleries in the world, 

recalls the attrac- 
tions of Paris. 
But one of its 
most frequented 
places is an enor- 
mous building, 
which seats many 
thousands and 
which is used for 
bull fighting. In 
its indulgence in 
this brutal sport 
the city bears no 
resemblance to 
Paris ; nor is there 
any resemblance 
in its surround- 
ings. Prom the 
streets of Madrid one looks across the country for miles and 
miles, seeing not a tree nor fence nor house ; only the weeds 
and scattered vegetation of an arid waste. 

In the vicinity of Madrid is a labyrinth of buildings, called 
the Escorial, a royal palace and monastery erected by the king, 
Philip II. Although built at great expense, in a village about 
twenty-five miles from Madrid, it now stands idle, competing 
in interest to the visitor with a chocolate factory near by, and 
serving strongly as a reminder of the extravagance of the ruler 
of Spain at the height of its glory. 

The city next in importance upon the highlands of 
Spain is Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors. 
To this point among the mountains, at the intersection 
of the best routes of travel from east to west, and from 
north to south, these people withdrew. Here they main- 



Fig. 169. 
A Spanish bull fight. 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 247 

tained themselves for two hundred years and developed a 
city of four hundred thousand population. At present, 
Granada contains less than one-fourth as many inhabitants, 
and its principal attraction is the Moorish palace, or Alham- 
bra (Fig. 165), one of the finest examples of Moorish 
architecture in existence. 

On the outside, this castle presents only bare stone walls, 
as ugly as such walls usually are ; but within, all is beauty. 
The courts, with marble fountains of surpassing grace in 
the centre, and with arcades which have exquisitely carved 
columns and ceilings of marble, are particular attractions. 

On the lowlands west of Granada are Seville and Cadiz, 
both flourishing cities at the time when vast stores of plunder 
were being brought from the Spanish colonies in the New 
World. Cadiz is now a fortified naval harbor ; and Seville 
is recovering a degree of her former commercial importance. 
One tobacco factory in Seville employs about five thousand 
women in making cigars and cigarettes. 

A Moorish palace at Seville, called the Alcazar, rivals even 
the Alhambra as a marvel of carving in stone. In summer 
this is one of the hottest cities in Spain, and the buildings, 
almost invariably white, cause the city to appear in the dis- 
tance like a solid mass of white marble. Why should that 
color be selected for buildings in a hot country? 

Gibraltar, a steep hill, with bold cliffs rising on nearly 
all sides, and with a town at its base, has belonged to 
England since 1704. This rock hill (Fig. 170) is, per- 
haps, the strongest fortification in the world, and guards 
the entrance to the Mediterranean. Why should the Eng- 
lish especially want such a stronghold there ? 

Malaga grapes serve to remind us of the coastal city by that 
name, and of the products about it. It has one of the warmest 
climates in Europe; and in addition to grapes, such semi- 



248 



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tropical fruits as olives, dates, and lemons are cultivated in 
its vicinity. Malaga has a poor harbor, but good roads lead 
northward from this point over the mountains, and it is a 
point of export for wine, raisins, and fruits. 

Valencia and Barcelona are the leading seaports of 
Spain. The region about the former is a beautiful gar- 
den, much like southern California, which it resembles 
also in products. Name some of the products. In addi- 




Fig. 170. 

The rock of Gibraltar from the Spanish coast, showing the narrow neck of 
land which connects it with the mainland. 

tion, rice, one of the staple foods, is grown on the low- 
lands near the coast. Barcelona, the second Spanish 
city in size, is the principal seaport and an important 
manufacturing centre as well. Cotton and other textiles 
are its principal manufactured goods. 

On the whole Spain is poorly provided with harbors ; 
and while the majority of the people dwell near the coast, 
and many engage in fishing, they take a small share in 
international commerce. 

Colonies of Spain. — The only remnants now left to Spain of 
her once magnificent foreign possessions are for the most part 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 



249 



in Africa. These include a few small settlements on the coast 
of Morocco ; a portion of the western coast of Sahara, having 
little value ; and a few small islands in the Gulf of Guinea. The 
Canary Islands west of the northern coast of Africa and the 
Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean also belong to Spain. 

• Principal Cities and Colonies of Portugal. — Lisbon 
and Oporto are the chief cities of Portugal. The 
former, the capital and metropolis, lying on a broad bay 




Fig. 171. 
The harbor and city of Oporto. Describe the situation of the city. 

where the Tagus River enters the sea, has one of the finest 
harbors in the world. With its white houses, its cathe- 
drals and palaces — all partly buried in trees on the hill- 
sides surrounding the harbor — it vies in beauty with the 
most attractive cities in the world. 

The misfortunes of Lisbon have been many. It has suffered 
from sieges, plagues, and earthquakes. The most terrible 
catastrophe happened in 1755, when an earthquake, followed 
by fire, destroyed most of the houses and a large part of the 
population. 

Oporto gives the name to Port wine. The lower part of 



250 EUROPE 

the Douro valley is one of the richest wine districts in Europe, 
and Oporto, like Bordeaux, is an important point for its export. 
Portugal, like Spain, and partly for the same reason, has 
lost much of her foreign territory. The Azores Islands, far 
to the west in the Atlantic, and the Madeira Islands, to the 
southwest, are a part of the kingdom. A number of the Azores 
Islanders have settled in Gloucester and other fishing centre's 
of New England, where they are among the most successful 
fishermen. Why should they be thus skilful? The Cape 
Verde Islands, also a volcanic group, off the coast of Africa, 
are treated as dependencies. Portugal also has large posses- 
sions on the mainland of Africa and smaller ones in Asia. 

Review Questioxs. — (1) Tell about the former greatness of 
Spain. (2) Give some of the causes of her downfall. (3) What 
kind of government has Spain ? (4) Portugal ? (5) Describe the 
highlands of the peninsula. (6) Mention several consequences of this 
elevated condition of the land. (7) Tell about agriculture and graz- 
ing. (8) Tell about the mining. (9) What can you say about manu- 
facturing? (10) Give the main facts about the following cities: 
(a) Madrid, (b) Granada, (c) Seville, (d) Cadiz, (e) Malaga, (/) Va- 
lencia, (g) Barcelona. (11) For what is Gibraltar noted? (12) What 
about the colonies of Spain ? (13) Tell about (a) Lisbon, (b) Oporto. 
(14) What about the colonies of Portugal ? (15) Name and locate the 
principal cities of Spain and Portugal. (16) The rivers. 

Suggestions. — (1) About what portion of the boundary line 
between Spain and Portugal is formed by rivers ? (2) What must be 
the influence of railways upon the old-fashioned methods of farming 
in the interior ? (3) Recall the Spaniards' treatment of the Incas 
in South America. (4) Look in the report of the Twelfth Census 
to see what per cent of our population cannot read. (5) Read about 
the great fleet, called the Spanish Armada, that was once sent out to 
conquer England. (6) Find out about some events in our recent war 
with Spain. (7) Learn what is meant by the Pillars of Hercules. 
(8) Find other pictures of Moorish architecture. (9) Read Wash- 
ington Irving's " The Alhambra." (10) Make a sketch of the Spanish 
peninsula, including the principal rivers and cities. 



XIV. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 

Map Questions (Fig. 172). — (1) The Scandinavian peninsula is 
the largest in Europe. What is its length in degrees? In miles V 
(2) How does its western coast remind you of the western coast of 
Scotland and Ireland? (3) What evidences do you see of glacial 
action? Where? (4) What do you observe about the rivers of 
Sweden? (5) Which of these three countries has the largest popu- 
lation ? (6) How does it compare with New York State in area and 
population? With your own state ? (See Appendix II.) (7) Make 
the same comparison for the smallest of the three countries. (8) What 
points in North America are in about the same latitude as Bergen, 
Christiania, and Stockholm ? (9) On Figure 3S, find how near to 
Scandinavia the Gulf Stream drift reaches. 

People. — The people of these three countries have long 
been more or less united, for the well-settled southern por- 
tions of Norway and Sweden are not separated by any 
natural barrier, while only a narrow, shallow sea separates 
Scandinavia from Denmark. Being descended from a 
common stock, and at times having a single government, 
they have many interests in common. The written lan- 
guage of the Norwegians and Danes is still the same, and 
Norway and Sweden are united under one king, although 
they have separate local government. Denmark is now 
independent, and, like Norway and Sweden, is a limited 
monarchy. 

These people, formerly called Northmen, or Norsemen, have 
been closely connected with our own history. They made some 
of the early invasions and settlements in Great Britain (p. 173), 
and are thereby to be numbered among our ancestors. Their 
daring seamen reached Greenland, by way of Iceland, and dis- 
covered America nearly five hundred years before Columbus 

251 



252 EUROPE 

approached its shores. In the present century they have 
migrated to the United States by thousands, and have chosen 
homes in many states, but particularly in Minnesota, Illinois, 
and Wisconsin. 

Physiography and Climate. — There are only about one- 
fourth as many inhabitants in these three countries together 
as there are in the British Isles ; yet in spite of frequent 
European wars, they have preserved their independence 
through many centuries. This has been due in part to 
their peculiar position. The only land approach to Scan- 
dinavia is by way of Lapland in Russia, which is so far 
north that it is very cold. Thus the peninsula is almost 
as isolated from other nations as is Great Britain. 

Denmark, on the other hand, is partly connected with 
Germany. However, the most important parts of Den- 
mark, the islands, are completely separated by water. 
These islands and, the Danish peninsula (Fig. 200) are 
the higher portions of a lowland that were left project- 
ing above the water when sinking of the land changed 
the Baltic valley to a shallow sea (p. 152). Standing at 
the entrance to the Baltic, they guard the approaches to 
this inland sea, and naturally Germany, Russia, and other 
nations have long coveted them. But as neither of the 
Great Powers was willing that one of the others should 
hold them, little Denmark has been allowed to continue 
its independent existence. 

The rugged surface and severe climate of Scandinavia 
have also served as a protection against invaders. From 
its southern to its northern end the peninsula is moun- 
tainous. It is an ancient mountain land (p. 150), much 
worn, and cut by deep stream valleys. While some peaks 
reach an elevation of six to eight thousand feet, most of 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



20o 



them are lower and of so nearly the same height that 
the upland resembles a plateau when viewed across the 
mountain crests. 
The boundary 
between Nor- 
way and Sweden 
follows the di- 
vide between 
the east and 
west flowing 
streams; and 
since the moun- 
tains descend 
steeply into the 
ocean on the 
western side, 
those streams 
which flow tow- 
ard the west are 
the shorter. 
Therefore, in all 
but the south- 
ern part, Nor- 
way is a narrow, 




Fig. 173. 

A Norwegian fjord with steep cliffs rising from the 

very water's edge. 



mountainous region crossed by short streams flowing in 
deep, steep-sided valleys (Fig. 173). 

Agricultural Districts. — The mountainous surface and 
cold climate are unfavorable to agriculture, although the 
warm ocean waters (p. 161) exert an enormous influ- 
ence here, as in the British Isles. In rising over the moun- 
tains, the westerly winds supply abundant rain and snow, 
and it is the latter which causes the numerous glaciers. 



254 EUBOPE 

Since the slope on the eastern side is much the longer, 
Sweden has extensive lowlands throughout its length. 
But these lowlands are so far north, and so protected 
from the influence of the sea, that in all but the southern 
part agriculture is of little importance. 

Although Denmark is free from mountains, the northern 
and western portion of the Danish peninsula (called Jut- 
land) is a sandy waste, so that only the islands and the 
southeastern part of the peninsula are very productive. 

In these three countries, therefore, there is a compara- 
tively small area that is valuable for agriculture, and the 
sections lie near together, namely, in southern Norway 
and Sweden and in eastern Denmark. 

Industries and Cities of Norway. — Since less than four 
thousand (out of a total of one hundred and twentj T -five 
thousand) square miles in Norway have a soil and climate 
adapted to agriculture or pasturage, the amount of stock 
and grain produced is small. Therefore, much meat, 
flour, and other food must be imported. Also, while 
there are some silver and copper mines, coal is entirely 
lacking, because the rocks were formed before the Coal 
Period. Manufacturing, therefore, is little developed. 
Even the fine water power is little used, because raw 
products for manufacturing are not abundant. 

On what, then, do the two million inhabitants depend 
for a living ? They have two valuable resources, — lumber 
and fish. More than one-fifth of the country is forest- 
covered — pines being most common — and lumber, wooden 
goods, and paper are the most important exports. As in 
Maine, the rapidly flowing rivers are of use in moving 
the logs from the forest, and also in supplying power for 
the sawmills and planing mills. 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



255 



Fish abound on the shallow banks along the irregular 
western coast, especially codfish in the neighborhood of 
the far northern Lofoden Islands. The North Sea with its 
many fish is also close at hand, and the Arctic Ocean 
with its seals and whales. Over a hundred thousand Nor- 
wegians are engaged in the fishing industry. Along the 
fjords every family owns a boat, and knows how to make 




Fig. 174. 
Bergen, Norway, with its deep, narrow fjord harbor. 

as well as use one. While the men are at sea the women 
work the small farms or garden patches. 

The abundance of lumber and the love for the sea, 
developed through centuries of experience in navigating 
the deep fjords and in fishing, have given rise to a third 
great industry, that of carrying goods for other nations. 
The timber for wooden vessels is easily supplied, and this 
small Norwegian nation has at present a greater number 
of freight vessels than any other European country ex- 
cepting the British Isles. 



256 



EUROPE 



These facts help to explain why the Norwegian towns 
are found along the coast. Indeed, it is rare to find even 
a village in the interior. The two principal cities are 
Christiania, the capital and largest city, and Bergen 
(Fig. 174). The former is situated at the head of a long, 
narrow, sunken valley, or fjord, which makes an excellent 
harbor, and the city is the principal port and distribut- 




Fig. 175. 

North Cape, the northern point in Norway. The summer sun is shining here 
at midnight, because the cape is within the Arctic circle. 



ing centre for southern Norway. Bergen is the important 
fishing port, as Aberdeen is in Scotland and Gloucester 
in Massachusetts. Being so near the open ocean, and 
therefore influenced by the warm water and warm ocean 
winds, this port is seldom frozen over. But the harbor 
of Christiania, with cold land to the north, east, and west, 
and a shallow sea to the south, freezes early and is ice- 
bound for four months in the year. 



NOB WAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



257 



Scenery on the Western Coast. — As in the British Isles and 
northeastern North America, the sinking of the Scandinavian 
peninsula has caused the sea to enter the river valleys, forming 
many bays, peninsulas, and islands. It is estimated that there 
are fully ten thousand islands along the coast of Norway. 
Owing to the fact that, before the sinking took place, the river 
valleys were deeply cut in hard rock, the bays are usually 
long, narrow, and deep fjords (Fig. 173). 

Some of the fjords extend fully ninety miles inland, and 
swollen streams from the mountains frequently plunge, for a 
fall of a thousand feet or more, over the vertical cliffs which 
bound the fjords. The cliffs are often only barren rock ; but 
here and there, where the slopes are not too steep, green forests 
cover the surface ; glaciers are frequently in sight ; and occa- 
sionally, upon a 
level patch, a ham- 
let of fishermen's 
homes (Fig. 115) 
is seen. These 
hamlets are usu- 
ally upon the deltas 
of small streams 
and are connected 
with the outer 
world, and with 
other villages, by 
no road or path- 
way excepting the 
waters of the fjord, 
man must learn to 

















'-&-■•' M-:- :^' ;\ ■•/;- 


mm 


^Zt^J§j 


!*■*>- 




■ ,,,-ff-^-— — 


Ska- 






W^ 


M, ' 






m '-' 












ssSiiiL ' •'*'& 




_.. _ 








W-i '.v wJ^fPs! 



Fig. 176. 

Hammerfest, Norway, far within the Arctic circle. 
This town is the nearest to the pole of any in the 
world excepting TJpernivik in Greenland, where all 
but a few of the inhabitants are Eskimos. 



So isolated a,re these hamlets that each 
do many things, — farm, fish, tan his 
leather, make his shoes, build his boat, his house, and many 
other kinds of work. 

Hundreds of visitors from all parts of the world travel by 
steamer along this coast every summer to enjoy the beautiful 
scenery. Another attraction is the sight of the sun at mid- 
night (Fig. 175). At Bergen, Christiania, and Stockholm, 
which are in nearly the same latitude, the shortest night is 
s 



258 EUROPE 

less than six hours ; at Trondhjem it is about four ; arid at 
Hammerfest (Fig. 176), far within the Arctic Circle and near 
North Cape (Fig. 175), the sun does not set from May 13 
to July 29. 

Industries and Cities of Sweden. — Agriculture is the 
leading industry of Sweden, for fertile soil, swept by the 
glacier (Fig. 114) from the northern and western high- 
lands, has been scattered over the lower lands. In con- 
sequence, the southern part of the country presents much 
the same appearance as New England. Oats are raised 
in most abundance, but rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes are 
also produced in large quantities. One reason why these 
products can mature here is the absence of cool summer 
winds from the ocean ; another is the great length of the 
summer clays in this far northern latitude. Much live 
stock is also raised, and butter is exported to Great Britain. 

However, nearly one-half the area of Sweden is covered 
with forest, and lumber is by far the greatest article of 
export, as in Norway. Indeed, these two countries supply 
much of the lumber needed in western Europe. Their 
wood is especially valued because of its hardness and dura- 
bility — qualities that are clue to the closeness of the 
annual rings caused by the shortness of the summer season. 

Mining is the third important industry. There are 
silver, lead, zinc, and copper mines. Some coal is found 
in the southern end, and the country has long been noted 
for its excellent iron ore. But since the principal iron 
mines are located far from the coal, there is little iron 
manufacturing in Sweden. However, as in portions of 
the Lake Superior district of the United States, some of 
the iron ore is smelted by the use of charcoal, and some 
by coal mined in Sweden or brought from other countries. 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



259 



The Swedish iron is of such excellent quality that it is 
eagerly sought where the highest grade of steel tools is 
manufactured, as in Sheffield, England. 

Sweden possesses excellent water power for various kinds 




Fig. 177. 

To show the location of Stockholm, with branching arms of the sea on one 
side and lakes (shaded) , caused by glacial deposits, on the other. 

of manufacturing, and in recent years the numerous rivers 
have begun to be utilized, so that manufacturing is making 
rapid progress there. 

The two principal cities — Stockholm, the capital, and 
Gothenburg — are on the coast : but there are other small 
seaports and inland mining towns. Stockholm is the resi- 






260 



EUROPE 



dence of the king of the united countries, who is also 
required to spend a part of each year in Norway. The 
situation of this city is one of marvellous beauty, on an 
excellent harbor (Fig. 177) ; but unfortunately it is 
blocked with ice for four months each year. Owing to 
the numerous lakes (Fig. 177) and to canals, it is con- 
nected by water, as well as by rail, with the chief points 




Fig. 178. 
The royal palace at Stockholm. 



in a populous region, and is therefore the principal distrib- 
uting centre for imports. Gothenburg, the chief centre for 
exports, possesses the important advantage that its har- 
bor is seldom frozen over. It is connected with Stockholm 
by railway as well as by lake and canal. Much of the 
distance between these two cities is occupied by lakes. 

The principal foreign trade of both Norway and Sweden is 
with Great Britain. Give reasons for this. What must be 
the main articles of import and export ? Next to Great Brit- 
ain comes Germany. Can you suggest reasons for this ? 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



261 



Industries and Cities of Denmark. — There is neither 
coal nor metal in the rocks of Denmark, so that there is 
no mining in the country. The only mineral product of 
value is clay, well suited to the manufacture of porcelain, 
which is an important industry. As in Ireland, the lack 
of coal for fuel is partially met by peat from the bogs and 
swamps of the northern and western parts. 

The fact that butter constitutes one-half the exports of 
Denmark throws much light upon the principal occupa- 
tion of the people. Farming, especially dairying, is the 
chief industry; and in this small country there are a mill- 
ion and a half dairy cows and nearly as many sheep, be- 
sides many horses, goats, and pigs. The laws of the nation 
discourage large farms, so that each farmer, by carefully 
cultivating a small patch of land, as in Belgium, obtains 
the most that it can yield. 

The nearness to good fishing banks has naturally made 
fishing impor- 
tant ; and this, 
together with 
the influence of 
island life, has 
created such a 
love for the sea 
that large num- 
bers of Danes 
serve as sailors on 
British and other 
foreign vessels. 

As in the case 

of Norway and Sweden, the principal foreign trade of 
Denmark is with Great Britain. Why ? What goods 




Fig. 179. 
A view in Copenhagen. 



262 EUROPE 

can well be exchanged ? One might therefore expect an 
important seaport on the western coast ; but that coast is 
so low, and so shut in by sand bars, that good harbors are 
lacking. In fact, the only harbor in all Denmark that 
admits large vessels is Copenhagen (merchants' harbor) 
on Seeland Island. The shipping, therefore, is centred at 
that port. And since this point guards the entrance to 
the Baltic Sea, there is a double reason why Copenhagen 
is the principal city of Denmark. The fact that it is the 
capital also increases its importance. While it approaches 
Buffalo in size, the next largest city is only one-tenth as 
populous. 

Colonies of Denmark. — The Danes, even more than the Nor- 
wegians, have been daring seamen and explorers of foreign 
lands. Although some of their possessions have been lost, 
Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and three small West Indian 
Islands are still Danish colonies ; and Iceland is a Danish 
dependency. In the Faroes, consisting of a score of small 
islands north of Scotland, the principal products are sheep and 
fish. Why might yon expect these two particularly ? 

Iceland, which is larger than Ireland, and more than twice 
the size of Denmark, is an island of volcanic origin. Over 
a hundred volcanoes are found there, twenty-five of which 
have been in eruption during historic times. Mt. Hecla is 
one of the most noted of these. Destructive earthquakes are 
common, and there are also geysers similar to those found in 
our Yellowstone National Park. 

The interior is a desert plateau, for the most part covered 
with snow, and hence uninhabited. Near the sea, however, 
there is some good pasture land, and the people are prin- 
cipally engaged in raising cattle and sheep. Fishing is im- 
portant, and down from the eider duck is a valuable product. 
Sea-birds, which abound, are one of the principal sources of 
food. 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 263 

Review Questions. — (1) What about the people of these three 
countries ? (2) What about their government ? (3) How have they 
been related to our history ? (4) Mention some geographic facts that 
have helped to preserve their independence. (5) Describe briefly the 
surface of Norway; of Sweden; of Denmark. (6) Where are the 
principal farming sections? (7) Tell about agriculture in Norway. 
(8) AVhy is there little manufacturing there ? (9) What is the 
principal export? Why? (10) What about fishing? (11) Give 
reasons for the large merchant fleet of Norway. (12) Tell about the 
cities of Norway. (13) Describe the scenery on the western coast. 
(14) Tell about Sweden : the principal industry ; the forests ; the 
mining; the manufacturing; the principal cities. (15) What are 
the principal industries in Denmark? (16) Where are the harbors? 
(17) Tell about Copenhagen. (18) Tell about the foreign territory 
of Denmark. (19) What are the important facts about Iceland? 
(20) Give some reasons why Norway, Sweden, and Denmark have 
their principal foreign trade with the British Isles. 

Suggestions. — (1) Why should the telephone prove of special im- 
portance among the fishing towns scattered along the coast of Nor- 
way ? (2) By use of a globe explain why the sun need not set for 
weeks at a time at Hammerfest. (3) Why is the whale and seal 
fishing important as a means of furnishing light during the long night 
of this northern land? (4) What do you know about the life of the 
Laplanders ? (5) Why should Bergen be one of the rainiest cities of 
Europe ? (6) Give reasons why harbors on the Baltic should be 
blocked by ice much oftener than those on the western coast of Nor- 
way. (7) Have you ever seen Swedish matches ? Can you give a 
reason why so many matches should be made in that country? (8) 
Give all the reasons you can to explain why the Norsemen should 
have become such daring navigators. (9) Hans Christian Andersen 
was a native of Denmark. What stories do you know that were writ- 
ten by him ? (10) Read and retell stories of the Norse gods in old- 
time mythology. (11) Read parts of The Saga of King Olaf, a poem 
by Longfellow. 



XV. RUSSIA 

Map Questions (Fig. 172). — (1) About how much of Europe is 
included in Russia ? (2) What part of the distance from pole to 
equator is included? (3) What does this suggest concerning tem- 
perature and rainfall? (4) How much of the boundary of Russia 
is. sea coast? (5) Name the seas which border it. (6) Name the 
mountains on or near the border. (7) What portion of Russia is occu- 
pied by plains? (Fig. 109). (8) In what directions do the large rivers 
flow ? Name the three longest. (9) What peculiar fact do you notice 
about the Caspian Sea? (10) Find Poland, Finland, and Lapland. 
(11) What parts of Asia are in the Russian Empire? (Fig. 241). 

Size and Position. — Russia in Europe is larger than all 
the other European countries together ; and the Russian 
Empire, which includes Siberia and other lands in Asia, 
occupies about one-sixth of all the land upon the globe. The 
empire extends from the Baltic on the west to the Pacific 
on the east, and within its borders is included a great 
variety of climate. What countries in North and South 
America approach it in area ? In variety of climate ? 

In spite of its vast extent, the development of Russia 
is greatly hindered by the lack of good harbors. In this 
respect it contrasts strongly with the United States. To 
be sure, the sea forms a large portion of the Russian 
boundary ; but Archangel, the principal port on the 
White Sea, is icebound for nine months, and the Baltic 
ports for four or five months each year. Besides this, the 
entrances to the Baltic (p. 252) and Black seas are 
guarded by foreign nations. Why are the Caspian ports 
of little use ? 

264 



RUSSIA 



265 



Physiography. — Most of the large rivers in western 
Europe have their sources in the mountains. Give exam- 
ples (Fig. 109). It is not so, however, in Russia where 
the .central divide is a low, hilly region less than twelve 
hundred feet above sea level at its highest point. Aside 
from the mountains along the border this is the highest 
part of Russia. How does it compare in altitude with 
the highest point in flat Holland? (p. 209). 

From what has been said, it is evident that most of 
Russia is a remarkably level plain (see also Fig. 109). 
Since several of the rivers are very long, what must be 
true as to the velocity of their currents ? What must 
follow as to their value for navigation ? What about the 
ease of canal construction ? 

In southeastern Russia, on the other hand, are the 
lofty Caucasus Mountains (Fig. 110), in which one of 
the peaks, the extinct volcano, Mt. Elbruz, is the highest 
mountain in Europe. But at the very base of these 
mountains are broad plains which in places are even lower 
than the level of the sea. 



The Caspian Sea, into which the longest river of Europe 
pours its floods, is the largest inland sea in the world. It was 
formerly much larger than now ; in fact, ocean water once 
reached from the Black^JSea, across Siberia, to the Arctic. 
Changes in the earth's crust have raised much of this ocean 
bottom above sea level and left large inland seas in the depres- 
sions. But, in spite of the enormous volume of w r ater which 
enters these inland seas, the evaporation in that dry climate 
has caused them so to shrink in size that neither the Caspian 
nor the Aral Sea (Fig. 241) is now connected with the ocean. 
The surface of the Caspian is now eighty-five feet below sea 
level, and by evaporation it is steadily growing smaller and 
Salter, leaving broad, salt-covered plains round about it. 



266 EUROPE 

Climate. — The influence of distance from the ocean 
upon temperature and rainfall is well illustrated in Russia. 
Moscow is in the same latitude as Edinburgh ; but while 
at Edinburgh the average temperature for January is 37°, 
at Moscow it is nearly 25° colder (Fig. 117). Notice which 
summer isotherms pass nearest to these two cities. It was 
the severity of the Russian winter that caused Napoleon 
Bonaparte to lose nearly the whole of a great army when 
he was invading that country in 1812. What effect must 
this cold have upon navigation of the rivers ? 

Extreme drought, as well as extremes of temperature, are 
found in parts of eastern Russia. Although the rain-bearing 
winds meet with no barrier in sweeping over such level land, 
they nevertheless deposit so much moisture on the coun- 
tries of western Europe that no part of Russia has heavy 
rainfall ; and the eastern part averages less than twenty 
inches per year (Fig. 118). Since this amount is barely 
sufficient for agriculture, the crops suffer, and famines 
follow in especially dry seasons. Southeastern Russia is 
altogether too arid for farming, being not only far from 
the ocean, but so far south that it is not greatly influenced 
by the prevailing westerlies. 

Climatic Belts. — Russia may be divided into several belts, 
according to climate. In the north are the frozen tundras, 
even in summer too cold for agriculture. The scattered Lap- 
landers, who are able to live in the far north, have habits 
resembling the Eskimos' (Fig. 180). They have, however, 
domesticated the reindeer (Fig. 121), which feeds on moss and 
is therefore able to live farther north than sheep, cattle, and 
horses. Without this animal most of the Lapps could not 
exist in this bleak region. 

South of the tundras, the warmer climate permits the 
growth of forests, including such trees as pine, fir, oak, beech, 



RUSSIA 



267 



and birch. Some of this timber has been cut away, and farms 
have taken the place of forest; but much woodland still remains. 

The forest belt 
is gradually re- 
placed on the 
south by open, 
grass-covered 
plains similar to 
those of central 
and western 
United States. 
This is the best 
agricultural belt 
of Russia, where 
grains are raised 
in enormous quan- 
tities, especially 
in the "black 
earth " belt, where 
the soil is fine- 
grained, black, and very fertile. The climate of the grassy 
plains gradually becomes more arid toward the south and east, 
until on the steppes farming is impossible. There herding is 
the main industry, as in the arid section of the United States. 
Both on the steppes and in the forest belt the summers are warm 
and the winters cold and accompanied by icy winds which 
sweep over the plains from the north. 

In the extreme southern part of Russia, near the Caucasus 
Mountains, there is abundant rainfall ; and, being so far south, 
the crops of warm temperate climates are raised (p. 270). 
But around the Caspian Sea most of the land is a desert. 




Fig. 180. 

A Laplander's hut. The home of the Laplanders is in 

northern Scandinavia and northwestern Russia. 



People and Government. — The plains of Russia have 
offered no better barrier to the inroads of invaders than 
to the winds. We therefore find many kinds of people 
united under Russian rule. Most of these belong to the 



268 



EUROPE 



white race, but to a different division from the German 
and British peoples. The Russians are Slavs, originally 
from Asia ; while the inhabitants of Germany, Scandi- 
navia, and the British 
Isles are of the Teutonic 
division. But Russia 
also contains many Jews, 
Teutons, and other 
people, including the 
Lapps (Figs. 180 and 
181) and Finns who are 
classed with the Mon- 
golian race. All together 
not less than forty lan- 
guages are spoken within 
the realm. 

In former centuries, 
while other parts of Europe 
were advancing in civiliza- 
tion, Russia was being 
raided by outsiders and 
its progress retarded by 
conquest. The country 
was so remote from west- 
ern Europe that it felt little influence from the growing civili- 
zation of the west. Moreover, approach by water was then 
difficult, because formerly the only Russian sea-coast was on 
the Arctic. It was not until the time of Peter the Great 
(1682-1725) that Russia began to learn the lessons of civiliza- 
tion from other European nations. 

These facts help to explain why Russia is so slightly ad- 
vanced in some directions. While the common people of other 
European nations were demanding greater liberty, and were 
constantly acquiring education, the mass of the Russians 



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Fig. 181. 
A Lapp boy from Lapland in Russia. 



RUSSIA 



269 



were kept in subjection and ignorance. They were mere serfs, 
who were little better than slaves to their lords, the nobles. 
Although the serfs were liberated in the middle of the last 
century, almost no attempt has been made to educate the 
masses, and at present they possess little liberty. 

The emperor, or Czar, is an absolute monarch " whose 
will alone is law." On purely local matters, however, 
the peasants have a voice. Those of a locality meet in a 
Mir, or assembly, to discuss matters of common interest 
and. to elect officers from their number, somewhat as is 
done in town-meetings in the United States. Naturally, in 
this day of popular government, many of the people are 
dissatisfied, and it is on account of this discontent that 
attempts are made to assassinate the Czar. The attack 
is against the form of government, rather than against 
the Czar, who personally is usually an estimable man. 

Lumbering. — Nearly a third of European Russia is forest- 
covered, and the timber resources, as in Norway (p. 254), 
are among the greatest of the country. Tins forest sup- 
plies not only lumber, but pulp for paper and bark for 
tanning. Many fur-bearing animals live in the forest, as 
was formerly the case in other parts of Europe. 

Farming and Grazing. — Both in the forest region and on 
the open plains to the south, there is extensive agriculture. 
Fully nine-tenths of the people are supported by farming, 
which makes Russia primarily an agricultural country. 

The most important crops are the grains, especially 
rye, wheat, barley, and oats. Russia ranks next to the 
United States among grain-producing countries, and wheat 
is one of its principal exports. Another important crop is 
hay ; and potatoes, sugar beets, and flax are extensively 
raised in the cool temperate climate. 



270 



EUROPE 




Iii southern Russia the warm climate permits the culture 
of grapes, tobacco, and corn; and south of the Caucasus even 

olives and cotton 
are produced. 

Farming in 
Russia is very 
crudely done, as 
might be expected 
from the charac- 
ter of the people. 
Aside from old- 
fashioned imple- 
ments, their roads, 
which are a fair 
index to the de- 
velopment of a 
nation, are ex- 
tremely bad. The 
level nature of the 
land makes this of 
little importance in dry weather ; but in wet seasons the roads 
become so impassable that crops cannot be carried to market. 
Undoubtedly the farm products in southern Russia would be 
far more extensive if good roads were provided. This may" be 
said also of some parts of the United States. 

On the grazing lands of the arid steppes, which resemble 
our western plains, many sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. 
The nomadic herdsmen, such as the Cossacks, still retain 
many of the customs of the shepherds and herders of Bible 
times, who dwelt farther south in Asia. 

Mineral Wealth. — Some parts of Russia contain mineral 
deposits of great value. In the Ural Mountains, for ex- 
ample, are gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other metals, 
besides some precious stones and graphite, or " black lead," 
which is used in lead pencils. 



Fig. 182. 

A fisherman's house in Finland. Fishing is a very 
important industry in Russian waters ; and there is 
a great demand for fish owing to the number of 
fast days kept by the Greek Church, to which the 
majority of Russians belong. 



RUSSIA 271 

Coal and iron are mined in several parts of Russia 
(Fig. 113), and each year the amount is increasing. 
As in Great Britain, some of the iron ore is so near coal 
and limestone that it is easily smelted. 

Russia ranks next to the United States in the production 
of petroleum. In our own country this oil was found to be 
remarkably abundant in western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, 
and West Virginia. The Russian petroleum is also found 
in several places, especially at Baku on the Caspian. But since 
its quality is not as good as that of the United States, it is 
less useful for kerosene. Large quantities are therefore con- 
sumed as fuel for steamers on the Caspian and Volga ; and, 
as in southern California, the oil is also used in locomotives._ 

Manufacturing. — Although numerous factories have recently 
been established in Russia, about six-sevenths of the manufac- 
turing population carry on the work by hand in their own homes. 
What a contrast to the United States and to Great Britain ! 

Distilling and brewing are the principal forms of manufac- 
turing not done in the homes ; then come cotton manufacturing 
and sugar refining, while flour mills, woollen and linen fac- 
tories, and iron works follow. What raw products of Russia 
encourage these industries ? 

Principal Cities and their Commerce 

Moscow and Nijni Novgorod. — The former isolation of 
Russia from other countries is illustrated by the fact that 
the principal cities were for a long time situated far in the 
interior. For example, Moscow, the second city in size 
and one of the chief manufacturing centres, and once the 
capital of the empire, is located almost in the centre of the 
realm, as Madrid is in Spain. The point was well chosen, 
because rivers, which canals could easily connect, diverge 
from this section in all directions. By the introduction 



272 



EUROPE 



of railways the advantage of this location was so increased 
that Moscow is now the great railway centre of Russia, as 
Madrid is of Spain, and for the same reason. State this 
reason (p. 245). But the land about the city, unlike that 
around Madrid, is fertile and densely populated. 




Fig. 183. 
A view of Moscow. Notice how very level the country is. 

Not only is Moscow adorned with royal palaces and govern- 
ment buildings, but it is the holy city of Russia, and therefore 
has numerous convents and churches (Fig. 184). The Univer- 
sity of Moscow, the largest in the empire, is attended by nsarly 
four thousand students. 

East of Moscow, on the Volga River, is Nijni Novgokob, 
renowned for its annual fairs. A great trade centre is needed 
somewhere in this region for the exchange of Asiatic and 



BUS SI A 



273 



of Russian prod- 
ucts, and this city 
is suitable for the 
purpose because 
of its superio r 
water connec- 
tions. Point them 
out (Map, Fig. 
172). The fairs, 
held in August 
and September, 
are the greatest in 
Europe, and at- 
tract as many as 
two h u u d r e d 
thousand strangers 
annually. In a 
single season 
goods are ex- 
changed to the 
value of nearly 
$200,000,000, and 
prices are fixed on crops and other materials for the coming 
year. Why could not such a centre for trade be better located 
upon the Caspian Sea? 

St. Petersburg. — While the two cities just described 
are very old, their position in the interior is not well 
adapted for communication with distant nations. It was 
this fact which led Peter the Great, in 1703, to found 
St. Petersburg at the head of the Gulf of Finland. The 
site selected is very marshy, and the climate is cold, 
foggy, and unheal thful. Moreover, the arm of the sea on 
which the city is situated is so shallow that a ship canal 
twenty miles in length has been necessary to connect it 
with the deeper water farther west. In addition, the 




Fig. 184. 
Greek Church at Moscow. 



274 



EUROPE 



harbor is ice-bound for more than four months each 
year. 

Yet in spite of all these disadvantages, St. Petersburg 
is already the largest city in Russia, and the fifth in size 
in Europe — facts that show how much such a seaport was 
needed. It is also one of the most magnificent of cities, 
having especially wide streets, splendid public buildings, 




Fig. 185. 
St. Isaac's Church in St. Petersburg. 



and fine residences. More goods are shipped by this route 
than from any other Baltic port, Riga, to the southwest, 
having about half as much shipping. 

Odessa. — Odessa, another important port, was founded 
a little over a century ago when Russia obtained possession 
of the northwestern coast of the Black Sea. Since the 
harbor is rarely frozen over for more than a few days, 
it possesses a great advantage over St. Petersburg, 
which it equals in its shipping trade. Besides being the 
chief outlet for the vast grain trade of southern Russia, 



BUS SI A 



275 



and the principal port on the Black Sea, Odessa is an 
important flour-milling centre, like Minneapolis. 

Warsaw and Lodz. — Thus far the Russians have found no 
opportunity to obtain possession of Constantinople, although 
they have, no doubt, felt many a yearning in that direction. 
Why ? But their progress in the west has not been confined 
to the establishment of seaports. They have extended their 
territory in various directions, one of their most important ac- 




Fig. 186. 
A view of Helsingfors in Finland. 



quisitions being a part of Poland, in which are situated two of 
the leading cities of Russia, — Warsaw and Lodz. The former 
is a centre for the railways that connect Russia with western 
Europe, and the latter is a manufacturing centre. Much coal 
and iron are mined in this vicinity. 

Finland, whose capital is Helsingfors (Fig. 186), although a 
part of the Russian Empire, has a measure of independence. 
There is a parliament which makes laws, but the Czar has the 
right of veto. Unlike the Russians, most of whom belong to 
the Greek Church, the Finns are mostly Protestants, belonging 
to the Lutheran Church. Mistreatment by the Russian gov- 
ernment has recently led to the migration of many Finns to 
the United States. 



276 EUROPE 

Remembering that Russia owns Siberia also, and has 
lately been establishing ports on the Pacific coast and 
building railways to them, it is evident that this is one 
of the most progressive of European nations. Russia is 
now one of the six Great Powers, and, with the education 
of the people and the development of the immense re- 
sources, the nation promises to grow rapidly more powerful. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of the Russian Em- 
pire. (2) What can you say about its position with reference to the 
sea? (3) Describe its surface features. (4) Tell about the rivers. 
(5) Tell about the Caspian Sea. (6) How does the climate vary? 
(7) Describe the climatic belts. (8) Tell about the people. (9) What 
about the government? (10) Tell about lumbering. (11) What 
are the principal farm products? What influence have the roads? 
(12) What about grazing? (13) What mineral products are found? 
Where? (14) For what purpose is some of the petroleum used? 
(15) What is the condition of manufacturing? (16) Tell about each 
of the cities: (a) Moscow — location, comparison with Madrid, im- 
portance; (b) Nijni Novgorod- — location, fairs; (c) St. Petersburg 
— location, surroundings, importance; (d) Odessa — location, im- 
portance; (e) Warsaw; (/) Lodz. (17) What are the conditions in 
Finland? (18) What about Russia's future? 

Suggestions. — (1) Compare the area of the Caspian Sea with that 
of Lake Superior. (2) Read about how the inhabitants of Moscow 
burned their houses in 1812 rather than give shelter to Napoleon's 
army. What followed ? (3) What must be some of the difficulties 
connected with building good roads in southern Russia? (4) What 
did Kosciusko, the Pole, do to make his name memorable to Ameri- 
cans ? (5) Have you read the story of Thaddeus of Warsaw ? If sc 
what can you tell about it ? (6) Read about how Peter the Greao 
wandered through European countries as a common workman, in 
order to obtain the benefit of Western ideas. (7) Make a sketch 
map of Russia, with principal rivers, cities, etc. (8) Compai-e the 
area and population of Russia and the United States. Also the degrees 
of latitude included in the two countries. (9) Where else besides on 
the Atlantic, Pacific, and Mediterranean does Russia desire an opening 
to the sea? 



XVI. GERMAN EMPIRE 

Map Questions (Fig. 200 opposite p. 301). — (1) Compare the 
latitude of Berlin with that of London. (2) Of New York. (3) Esti- 
mate the greatest length of Germany from east to west. From north 
to south. (4) How does it compare in size with the British Isles? 
Russia? (5) How much of the boundary is natural? (See also Fig. 
172.) (6) Point out the principal rivers. To what extent do they 
correspond in general direction? (7) Is most of the surface plain or 
mountainous? (Fig. 109). Where are the mountains? (8) What 
facts do you notice about the coast line? (9) Is the North Sea or the 
Baltic the more favorable place for seaports ? Why? 

Extent and Position. — The German Empire contains 
209,000 square miles, which is an area a little larger than 
France and twice the size of Colorado. But it has about 
56,000,000 inhabitants, or over a hundred times as many 
as Colorado and 17,000,000 more than France. 

The position of this great nation offers a marked con- 
trast to that of Great Britain. Only about one-third of 
its boundary is water, while its frontier comes in contact 
with seven independent countries, aside from Luxemburg. 
What are their names ? 

The location of the British Isles is regarded as favor- 
able for world commerce, inasmuch as densely populated 
Europe lies near at hand on one side, while the far-away 
New World is on the other side. The situation of Ger- 
many possesses great advantages, also. Owing to her cen- 
tral location, most of the markets of the continent are at 
her very doors, while two of her principal ports, Hamburg 
and Bremen, face Great Britain and the West. On the 

277 



278 



EUROPE 



map (Fig. 172) find some of the large cities that can be 
quickly reached from Germany- In these clays of rail- 
ways Germany's central position is superior to that of 
England for European trade. 

People and Government. — It has required a great 
struggle, which has lasted through centuries, to bring 

under one rule 
the various people 
within the boun- 
dary line of the 
German Empire. 
In early times 
north Germany 
was occupied by 
men of Germanic 
stock and south 
Germanyby Celts, 
the same races 
that the Romans 
found in Britain. 
The Celts were 
finally overcome 
by the Germans, 
although they 
have left numer- 
ous traces of 
themselves. 
They were dark eyed and dark haired, while the Germanic 
people were light complexioned ; and the former character- 
istics are to this clay common in south Germany. Besides 
the Celtic and Germanic peoples, Slavs and other races 
from the east settled in early times in the eastern part. 




Fig. 187. 
A German peasant girl spinning. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 279 

For centuries there was, at best, only a loose confederation 
to hold these varied peoples together ; and the numerous states 
which occupied the region were often at war with one another 
and with surrounding nations. Their condition was, in some 
respects, similar to our own during and immediately following 
the Revolutionary War. There was, however, one important 
fact to their disadvantage — their meddlesome neighbors helped 
to intensify the quarrels that arose among them. 

During the War of 1866 Prussia and Austria, the prin- 
cipal kingdoms of the German Confederation, strove with 
each other for the exclusive leadership. Prussia proved 
successful, and Austria withdrew from the union. Soon 
afterward, in 1870, the German states, without Austria, 
joined in a war against France, in which they met with 
signal victory, taking possession of even Paris itself. In 
1871 the new German Empire, with its present boun- 
daries, was established. 

All together there are twenty-six states within the Empire, 
some of them being kingdoms, some duchies, and some merely 
free towns. The smallest of all is the city of Bremen, occupy- 
ing only ninety-nine square miles, while Prussia, the largest, 
contains more than one-half of the entire empire, and has a 
population of about 32,000,000. They are all united under a 
central authority, more closely and less independently than 
our states. In place of a President they have an Emperor 
(the King of Prussia being by law Emperor of Germany), and 
their form of government is a constitutional monarchy (Fig. 
188). However, the power of the Emperor is much greater than 
that of the British king, though less absolute than that of the 
Russian Czar. 

Defence. — In the war of 1870, the Germans not only 
defeated the French but compelled them to pay a large 
sum of money. At the same time they seized the French 



280 



EUROPE 



territory west of the Rhine, called Alsace-Lorraine, in 
which Metz and Strassburg are situated. This is a sug- 
gestion of the way in which much of Germany's irregular 
frontier line has been determined. To a great extent 
mountains form the southern boundary, and water the 
northern ; but the eastern and western limits, largely 




Fig. 188. 

The German Reichstag, corresponding to our House of Representatives, meets 
in this building, in Berlin. The other legislative branch, called the Bun- 
desrath, is composed of members appointed by the various German states. 

decided by war, do not follow any natural barrier. Draw 
an outline map of Germany. 

In order to preserve her present boundaries, Germany 
must be prepared to defend them at any time. This need 
calls many citizens to an occupation which we have not 
thus far considered, namely, that of 'preparing for ivar. 

It is a fact that each of the great European nations is jeal- 
ously watching the others ; and as no one of them knows how 
soon a dispute may arise with its neighbor, each maintains a 
large and thoroughly equipped army. The object of each is to 



GERMAN EMPIRE 281 

be so dangerous that others may fear to offend or attack it; 
and if once involved in war, to come off victorious. 

For such reasons all able-bodied young men in Germany are 
required to devote usually two full years and parts of several 
succeeding years to active military training. Most of them 
enter the service at about the age of twenty ; and as there are 
about four hundred thousand males arriving at that age every 
year, one can obtain some idea of what it costs a European 
nation to have close neighbors. The peace footing of the Ger- 
man army is almost six hundred thousand men, which is larger 
than the number employed in all the mines of the British 
Isles. In addition to this, the German navy calls for many 
recruits. As all these men are, for the time being, withdrawn 
from industrial pursuits, the nation loses the fruits of their 
labor for that period. Thus the productiveness of the nation 
is reduced. 

Extensive fortifications are built near the boundary, as at 
Cologne, Metz, an I Strassburg on the French side, and Konigs- 
berg and Posen, near Russia. They are also numerous in the 
neighborhood of the great interior cities, and at strategic points 
here and there. The expense of these fortifications, and the 
vast sums required to keep up the army and navy, form a 
heavy drain upon the nation. 

Germany is not unlike the other European nations in these 
respects. As already stated (p. 203), the British, having no 
immediate neighbors, rely mainly upon their powerful navy 
for defence. But every one of the Great Powers is calling for 
many men, and expending large sums of money either for the 
army or navy, or both. In fact, preparation for war is one of 
the great occupations of Europe to-day. 

Physiography. — Germany consists of two quite differ- 
ent parts. The southern section is mainly a mountainous 
region of ancient date, and therefore worn low (Fig. 189), 
like the mountains of Great Britain and New England. 
It is, in fact, a plateau from one to two thousand feet 



282 EUROPE 

in height, with some ranges, like the Erzgebirge, rising 
high enough to be commonly classed as mountains. Only 
in the extreme south, on the edge of the Alps, is a great 
altitude reached, one peak being nearly ten thousand 
feet above sea level. 

Valuable minerals have been revealed by the wearing 
away of these ancient mountains ; indeed, the mineral 




Fig. 189. 

The city of Stuttgart in the low plateau of ancient mountain land of southern 

Germany. 

belt of southern Belgium and northeastern France is but 
a continuation of the highlands which cross southern and 
central Germany. 

Northern Germany is a lowland, broadening toward the 
east until it merges into the plains of Russia. In the 
neighborhood of Holland the plain is very low and flat 
(Fig. 190) ; but in most places, owing to the irregular 
deposits left by the Scandinavian glaciers, it is rolling. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 



283 




Elevations in this part of Germany rarely exceed six 
hundred feet. This plain is, in large part, included in 
Prussia, the greatest and most powerful of the German 
kingdoms. 

Most of the drainage is northward into the North and Baltic 
seas. What river rises in the highland region of southern 
Germany and 
crosses Austria, 
finally to enter 
the Black Sea ? 
Name and trace 
the courses of 
four large rivers 
which flow north- 
ward. Of these 
the Rhine is the 
most important. 
Notice the large 
number of cities 
along its banks. While parts of the Rhine valley are broad 
and densely settled, the river in the central part of its course 
flows through a deep and beautiful gorge cut in the highlands 
(p. 297). 

Climate. —The average yearly rainfall is about twenty- 
eight inches, although the amount decreases toward the 
east until, near the Russian border, it does not exceed 
twenty inches. That these figures may be better appre- 
ciated, we may recall the fact that the average rainfall in 
most parts of the United States east of the Mississippi 
River is over forty inches. 

Note the number of degrees of latitude included in 
Germany. Nevertheless, owing to the difference in ele- 
vation, the southern plateau is about as cold in winter 



Fig. 190. 
A view on the very level plain of north Germany. 



284 EUROPE 

as the northern lowland. Notice (Fig. 117) that the win- 
ter isotherms extend nearly north across Germany. In 
summer, however, the southern part is warmer than the 
northern. But the valleys of the south, being low and 
enclosed, are warmer than the northern plains both in 
winter and in summer, and are therefore capable of pro- 
ducing such crops as tobacco and grapes. 

The increase in extremes of temperature toward the 
east, or away from the ocean, is illustrated on the coast. 
The North Sea is almost free from ice, while the Baltic 
ports are frozen over for a time ; and the farther east they 
lie, the longer their trade is arrested by the cold. What 
must be some of the results of this fact ? 

Forests. — That the mountains of Germany are low 
enough to be well wooded, is indicated by the frequent 
use of the word wald (the German for wood) in the 
mountain names. Where the soil is poor, as in the 
stretches of sand deposited during the Ice Age, much of 
the lowland is also wooded. All together about one-fourth 
of the surface of the empire is covered with trees. 

The tendency of the German people to useful and sensible 
economy is well illustrated in their treatment of the woodlands. 
Instead of wantonly devastating them by fire and the axe — as 
has been done in so many parts of our own country — they 
maintain an excellent system of forest culture. Trees are 
planted in place of those that are cut for timber, these are 
given proper care, and thus the woods continue to be abundant. 
By this system, also, forest culture becomes profitable. It is 
partly due to the encouragement received from the success in 
Germany, that forest reservations have been established in 
various parts of the United States, and schools of forestry 
founded, as in New York, for the purpose of studying how to 
care properly for our woods. 



G EBMA N EM PIE E 



285 



Agriculture and Grazing. — On the whole, Germany has 
not a fertile soil ; but the farm products are very exten- 
sive, because the people are both industrious and intelli- 
gent, and their method of cultivating the soil is excellent. 
What countries may well be contrasted with them in this 
respect ? 

More than one-third of the population are de- 
pendent for their living upon agriculture, the leading 




Fig. 191. 

A view on the Rhine at Bingen. Notice the opposite bank where the earth has 
been terraced so that even the hill slope may be used for vineyards. 

industry of the nation. Germany is one of the most 
important grain-producing countries of Europe ; but 
here rye replaces wheat as the principal grain. Potatoes, 
introduced from America, are raised in such quantities 
that, like rye, they form one of the principal foods. 
These two crops are extensively cultivated, both because 
they are a cheap food, and because they flourish in the 
light soil and cool summer climate, characteristic of so 



286 EUROPE 

much of Germany. Sugar beets, hay, oats, and barley are 
other important crops of the northern plains, while in the 
Rhine and other warm, sheltered valleys of the south, 
hops, tobacco, and grapes are raised in large quantities. 

Since much of the lowland is too sandy for cultivation, and 
much of the highland too rugged, it is not surprising that one- 
sixth of all the surface consists of natural pasture. Cattle for 
beef and for dairy purposes are kept in nearly all parts of the 
empire, but .especially in the damper climate of the west. Con- 
trary to the condition in most countries, sheep are less numer- 
ous than cattle. The number of sheep is decreasing because 
wool may be so cheaply imported; but swine have greatly 
increased, largely because of the cheap food supplied by ref- 
use from the beet sugar factories, which have been increasing 
in number (p. 288). 

Mining. — Next to Great Britain, Germany is the great- 
est mining country of Europe ; and, as in the United 
Kingdom, her most valuable minerals, coal and iron, often 
occur in the same region. Germany and Belgium together 
produce more zinc than all the rest of the world ; and nearly 
half the silver obtained in Europe is mined in Germany. 
Much lead and copper also come from Germany. 

This country resembles our own in the wide distribution of 
its coal beds. The coal fields that were found in Belgium and 
northeastern France (p. 227) extend into Germany in the 
neighborhood of Aachen ; and from this point eastward to the 
Russian border there are several important coal fields. 

There are also immense salt mines, as at Stassfurt, north- 
west of Halle, from which are obtained not only table salt, but 
products used in the manufacture of soap, in dyeing, bleach- 
ing, glass making, and calico printing. The Germans employ 
thoroughly scientific methods in their mining work ; and it is 
from them that other nations have learned many of the meth- 
ods which are employed in reducing ores to metal. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 287 

Manufacturing. — From the above facts we may expect 
to find Germany a great manufacturing country, with her 
manufacturing centres well distributed. Explain why. 

About a third of the inhabitants are dependent upon 
manufacturing, and in recent years Germany has so ad- 
vanced in this industry that she now ranks next to the 
United Kingdom in the quantity and excellence of her goods. 

The distribution of the coal and iron gives the key to 
the principal centres for iron manufacturing. The busi- 
est section is along the Rhine, in the vicinity of Cologne, 
which may well be compared with northern England in 
the extent of its industries (p. 188). A second centre is 
about Dresden and Chemnitz, and a third at Breslau 
in the southeastern corner of the empire. 

As in other countries that we have studied, the textile 
industries are best developed near the coal fields. There- 
fore the sections mentioned above are distinguished for 
cotton, woollen, and silk factories as well as for iron. 

The extensive forests partly account for a third occupa- 
tion of many sections, namely the manufacture of furni- 
ture, paper, and other materials made of wood. 

An excellent illustration of the fact that the Germans use 
scientific methods in their manufacturing, as in other indus- 
tries, is found in their manufacture of dyestuffs. They have 
discovered how to make dyes from mineral products so cheaply 
that the expensive vegetable dyes formerly in use have been 
practically abandoned. This is of importance in the manufac- 
ture of various kinds of colored textiles. 

The map (Fig. 200) shows no cities south of Breslau ; yet 
a busy manufacturing centre exists there. The explanation 
is that the people carry on this work largely in their own 
homes, instead of in factories. Living in a hilly country, 
where agriculture is not very profitable, they spin and weave 



288 EUROPE 

the flax and wool raised, near by. They also make lace and 
carve wood ; but, although villages stretch for miles along the 
valleys, there are no large towns. 

The manufacture of spirituous liquors is another prominent 
German industry. A portion of the immense potato crop is 
made into spirits, and also some of the beets. But beer, in 
which barley and hops are used, is the common beverage. 
From the grapes of southern Germany much wine is manu- 
factured, though not nearly so much as in France. 

The sugar beet has led to still another noted German indus- 
try. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew nothing of sugar, 
and in fact the people of Europe knew little about it until 
about two centuries ago. Then they began to import sugar 
from countries whose hot, moist climate and fertile soil were 
favorable to the cultivation of sugar cane. At present the 
leading countries for the production of sugar cane are the 
West Indies, Java, the lower Mississippi near New Orleans, 
and the Hawaiian and Philippine islands. In those places the 
cane is grown for the sake of its sap, which, by boiling, is 
converted into brown sugar and the by-product, molasses. 

For a long time nearly all sugar was obtained from sugar 
cane, although maple trees supplied a small amount ; but 
German chemists found a means of extracting sugar from 
beets. By improving the process, and by developing the 
beets until they contained more sugar, the great industries 
of sugar beet raising, and the refining of beet root sugar, 
have been made possible. Each year this source of sugar 
has been proving a more formidable rival to sugar cane, 
until now a large part of the sugar consumed in Europe, 
and even some of that used in North America, is obtained 
from sugar beets. One important reason why this industry 
has thrived is that sugar beets grow in a cool temperate 
climate where population is dense and markets are 
numerous. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 



289 



Formerly Germany had to rely upon foreigners for sugar ; 
but since the development of this industry, beet sugar has 
become one of its greatest exports. Nevertheless, the popu- 
lation is so dense and so many are engaged in manufactur- 
ing, that, like the 
British, the Ger- 
mans cannot raise 
all the food they 
need. Therefore 

much food, such as 
wheat and meat, as 
well as raw materi- 
als for manufacture, 
such as cotton, wool, 
and silk, must come 
from abroad. 

Germany's Rapid 
Advance. — No Eu- 
ropean country in 
the last quarter of a 
century has experi- 
enced such rapid 
growth as Germany. 
For example, in the 
twenty-five years 
preceding 1895 her 
increase in popula- 
tion was over 11,000,000, while France had an increase of 
only 2,500,000. The empire has had a corresponding gain 
in wealth. 

Undoubtedly the strong central government established 
in 1871, and with it the laying* aside of the petty jeal- 




Fig. 192. 

Storks at Strassburg, — a familiar bird in Ger- 
many which builds nests on the chimneys. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 291 

ousies that paralyzed industries, is one cause of this ad- 
vance. But there are many other causes, of which one 
of the most influential is education and the encourage- 
ment of science. Every German child is forced by law 
to attend school ; and careful attention is given to the 
study of the various industries, foreign products, lan- 
guages, etc. In the higher commercial and technical 
schools, young men obtain excellent preparation for vari- 
ous kinds of business, while in many other countries there 
is little or no provision for such education. 

The value of scientific work is fully recognized and 
encouraged by the government ; and that such encourage- 
ment is profitable to the nation is proved by the wonderful 
development of the sugar industry, the mines, and the 
factories. Not many years ago much of the manufacturing 
was done by hand ; but now the best machinery has been 
introduced, and Germany is one of the three leading manu- 
facturing nations of the world. Name the other two. 

Coupled with the advantage of an excellent education is the 
fact that Germans live less extravagantly than many people. 
They economize in their food and their clothing; for instance, 
the people as a whole eat the cheap black bread, made of 
rye, instead of the more expensive wheat bread. Thus they 
learn to save money, even on a small income ; and this is one 
of the reasons why Germans prosper in business, both at home 
and abroad, where others have failed. 

The construction of railway tunnels through the Alps, 
thereby improving communication with the Mediterranean, is 
another important cause of progress. Explain how. 

Colonies and Emigrants. — The recent acquisition of foreign 
territory is an indication of the growth of Germany. The 
empire is now in possession of extensive areas in the island of 
New Guinea, north of Australia, and in both east and west 
Africa, as well as smaller colonies elsewhere (Fig. 193). 



292 EUROPE 

Many Germans have emigrated to various parts of the New 
World. Fully five million emigrants have come to the United 
States within the last seventy-five years, while the British 
Isles have sent us not quite seven million. Naturally many 
of the German emigrants to other countries have kept up trade 
with their fatherland, and have theieby increased the commerce 
of Germany. 

Principal Cities and their Commerce 

After the preceding- statements, it may not be surpris- 
ing to learn that the leading German cities have expe- 
rienced as rapid a growth as those of America. In the 
twenty years between 1870 and 1890, for example, Berlin 
had a more rapid growth than New York, and added as 
many actual new residents as Chicago. In 1875 Boston 
had almost a hundred thousand more inhabitants than 
Hamburg ; but now Hamburg has nearly a hundred 
thousand more than Boston. Other German cities have 
increased, and are still increasing, in population at much 
the same rate. 

Berlin. — The position of Berlin, on a small river (Fig. 
196) on the North German plain, midway between the 
coast and the highlands, may not at first seem advanta- 
geous. But the Oder and some of the tributaries of the 
Elbe approach so near each other in this section that they 
have easily been united by canal. Thus Berlin has water 
connection with both Hamburg and Stettin, as well as 
with all parts of these two river systems, — a very impor- 
tant aid in obtaining fuel, food, etc., for the city. Observe 
also (Fig. 200) that Berlin lies on the direct route from 
Hamburg to Breslau, and from Stettin to Leipzig, and that 
other large cities surround it. It is, moreover, on the 



GERMAN EMPIRE 



293 



route of several great European railways, and is therefore 
one of the important railway centres of the continent. 

With such excellent connections, by water and by rail, 
Berlin has naturally become one of the great manufactur- 
ing cities. Fully half the residents are supported by this 
industry, which includes brewing, the manufacture of fancy 




Fig. 194. 
The Dresden Art Museum. 



articles, clothing, machinery, etc. Besides being the 
capital of Prussia and of the German Empire, Berlin is 
the centre of German banking. It is noted for its art and 
music, and for its great university, the largest in the 
empire. There are a number of suburbs, one being 
Potsdam (Fig. 196), the German " Versailles," in which 
are located several royal palaces. 



294 



EUROPE 



Interior Cities near Berlin. — Among the cities not far 
from Berlin is Leipzig, the fourth largest in the empire. 
It is situated at the junction of two small streams at a 
point where roads from the highland meet those from the 
lowland. Formerly it was a centre for wagon roads, 
and now it has naturally become a railway centre. Owing 
to its favorable position, Leipzig is, next to Berlin, the 

most important 
trade centre of 
Germany. One 
of its leading 
articles of com- 
merce is fur. It 
is the seat of a 
noted univer- 
sity, and a cen- 
t r e for the 
German book- 
trade. 

Dresden, 
southeast of 
Leipzig, is 
noted for its art 
museum (Fig. 
194), which ri- 
vals the Louvre 
of Paris. The 
beautiful Dresden china is made in this vicinity, and in 
recent years much manufacturing has developed, for Dres- 
den is situated on a navigable river and has coal near at 
hand. It is, moreover, the capital of Saxony, the most 
densely settled German state. 




Fig. 195. 
A German residence. 




>^ JUSG 1" K 1TN" f \ 




Fig. 196. 
Berlin and vicinity. 



296 



EUROPE 



Chemnitz, near by, has important textile industries ; and 
Halle and Magdeburg, farther to the northwest, and in the 
centre of the chief beet-growing area, are extensively engaged 
in the manufacture of sugar. 

Breslau, only a little smaller than Leipzig, is on a navi- 
gable river, and has the advantage of being near a very rich 

coal and iron 
field. It is, there- 
fore, a great 
manufacturing 
city, and its sit- 
uation near the 
frontier makes 
it an important 
market for east- 
ern and central 
Europe. 

Seaports. — 
Hamburg, 
which is larger 
than St. Louis, 
is the second 
city in Germany, and the most important seaport on the 
continent. The reasons for this are clear when it is known 
that the estuary of the Elbe (Fig. 196) makes an excel- 
lent harbor, usually free from ice, and that Germany has 
an extensive foreign trade. Name some articles which 
that port probably receives from the United States. 
What water connections has Hamburg with the in- 
terior ? 

Bremen and Stettin also admit large vessels, and are the 
chief rivals of Hamburg ; but they together have less than one- 




Fig. 197. 
A castle on the Rhine. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 



297 



half as much commerce as Hamburg. In what respects are 
they less favorably situated for commerce than Hamburg ? 

Name other Baltic ports besides Stettin. Which is a natural 
outlet for wheat 
from Russian Po- 
land ? Estimate 
the distance saved 
to the Baltic 
ports by the con- 
struction of the 
Kaiser Wilhelm 
canal, which is 
sixty-one miles 
in length. 

Cities along the 
Rhine. — The 

Rhine, the most 
important river 
of Germany, is 
often compared 
with the Hudson 
in scenery. 



Both rivers 
have parts that 
are shut in by 
high, rocky cliffs, 
well wooded to 
the top. But the 
Rhine is much 
narrower than the 
Hudson, so that 




Fig. 198. 
The Cologne Cathedral, one of the most beautiful 
Gothic edifices in the world, was begun in 1248 and 
completed in 1880. 



these walls seem loftier ; and since the stream is more wind- 
ing, they often stand out boldly, as if in the very path of 
boats, to bar their further progress. When one journeys 



298 EUROPE 

along the more beautiful portion, a fine old castle — perhaps in 
ruins, or possibly still kept up as a palatial residence (Fig. 197) 
— often comes into view, as a turn in the course reveals an 
especially bold cliff. Frequently one sees several such re- 
minders of the past from a single point on the river. There are 
many terraced vineyards on the sloping hillsides (Fig. 191), and 
likewise many a quaint village built on a narrow strip of flood 
plain between the river and the cliff. Since the Rhine receives 
more large tributaries than the Hudson, there are more wild 
glens on the sides and more broad, wooded valleys, which open 
up charming views from the river. 

In regard to the distribution of cities along its banks, the 
Rhine offers still further contrast to the Hudson. The latter 
has a large population at only two points ; namely, near its 
mouth, where there are millions of people, and about one hun- 
dred and fifty miles to the north, where Albany, Troy, and 
Cohoes are situated. Between Yonkers (just above New York 
City) and Albany there is not a city with twenty-five thousand 
inhabitants. The Rhine, on the other hand, while having no 
enormous collection of people at any one point, has many popu- 
lous cities distributed along its course. What have you already 
learned about Rotterdam at its mouth ? How does it compare 
with New York City in size ? 

On ascending the river into Germany we come to the 
great manufacturing region already mentioned (p. 287). 
What cities do you find there? Cologne, the largest, 
with a population of more than a third of a million, is 
directly on the river bank. It is a great shipping point, 
since railways cross the river, and boats from London and 
other places are able to ascend to this point. 

Elberfeld and Barmen have important textile manufac- 
tories ; Essen is famous for the Krupp steel works ; Krefeld 
is an important silk manufacturing town ; Aachen (Aix-la- 
Chapelle in French) manufactures woollen cloth. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 



299 



Just beyond the great bend in the Rhine is Frank- 
fort, on a navigable tributary, the Main, along which lies 
the easiest route from the Rhine valley to the Danube. 
Since the railway from the German plain to the upper 
Rhine passes Frankfort, it is a centre of important trade 




Fig. 199. 
A scene in Frankfort. 



routes, and therefore one of the leading trading and 
banking centres in western Germany. It has long been 
a prominent city, and was the capital of the old German 
Confederation (p. 279). 

Railways to the Danube pass through Munich, the 
capital of the kingdom of Bavaria. Although so far to 
the south, and so distant from coal, Munich is the third 
city in size in the realm. It is on the trade routes from 



300 EUROPE 

Germany to Italy and to Austria, and is accordingly an 
important railway centre. Much of its renown is due to 
its art collections and its art industries, such as work in 
bronze, gold, silver, glass painting, and porcelain manufac- 
turing. 

North of Munich, on the road to Berlin, is Nuremberg, a 
city widely known for its careful preservation of the old art 
and architecture that made it famous in former centuries, and 
for its present manufacture of toys. It is a centre for several 
railways, and one of the most rapidly growing German cities. 

Review Questions. — Give (1) the area of Germany; (2) the 
population ; (3) the boundaries. (4) What advantage does Ger- 
many's position give her for European trade? Tell about (5) the 
early inhabitants; (6) the government; (7) preparation for war; 
(8) physiography; (9) rainfall; (10) temperature; (11) forests; 
(12) agriculture; (13) grazing; (14) mining; (15) manufacturing. 
(16) Give some of the causes for Germany's recent advance. (17) What 
about the growth of German cities ? Tell (18) about Berlin ; (19) cities 
near Berlin ; (20) the seaports. (21) Compare the Rhine with the 
Hudson. (22) What about cities along its banks? (23) Give reasons 
for the importance of Munich. 

Suggestions. — (1) Look in an atlas to find in what part of the 
empire the larger states, such as Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, etc., are 
situated. (2) People often assert that the peace of Europe is pre- 
served by extensive preparation for war ; in what sense can this be 
true ? (3) What must be some of the benefits of two years of active 
training in the army, aside from preparation for war ? What some of 
the disadvantages ? What relation has this to emigration ? (4) What 
is the size of our standing army? W T hy so small? (5) What seaports 
of Europe most nearly approach Hamburg in size? (6) How may the 
Kaiser Wilhelm canal possibly prove an injury to Hamburg? (7) Show 
that Germany in her industries resembles Great Britain, while con- 
trasting with Russia and Norway. (8) Find out something about 
Goethe, Schiller, Humboldt, Emperor William the First, Bismarck, 
Von Moltke, Wagner, and Schumann. (9) Read about Martin Luther 
and the German Reformation. 




Fig. 200. 



XVII. SWITZERLAND 

Map Questions (Fig. 200). — (1) What countries surround 
Switzerland ? (2) From which one is it least completely separated by 
mountains ? (3) What large rivers rise among the Alps ? In what 
directions do they flow? (4) Notice the lakes among the Alps. (5) 
How does the area of Switzerland compare with that of your own 
state? (6) What reasons can you suggest for so small a nation 
remaining independent in the midst of powerful countries? 

Physiography and Climate. — This is a very mountain- 
ous country (Figs. Ill and 203-205), for the Jura 
Mountains are on the northwestern border, while the 
Alps occupy the southern half. Between these two 
mountain systems, which extend northeast and southwest, 
is a low, hilly plateau, from one to two thousand feet in 
altitude. About one-third of Switzerland is included in 
the plateau belt. \ln so rugged a country one would not 
expect to find a large population ; yet Switzerland is 
almost as densely settled as France, and much more so 
than the state of New York. 

It is evident that the temperature of this mountainous 
country must be low, and that it must vary greatly with 
the altitude. This is well illustrated in the Alps, at whose 
base are found chestnut and walnut trees, which are re- 
placed higher up by beech, maple, and other trees of the cool 
temperate zones, and still higher by a belt of evergreens. 
Above these come dwarfed trees, shrubs, grass, etc. ; and 
higher still, at an average elevation of about nine thou- 
sand feet above sea level, the snow line is reached. 

301 



302 



EUROPE 



The numerous lofty mountains, rising in the path of the pre- 
vailing westerlies, cause Switzerland to be one of the wettest 

countries on the 
continent. On 
the higher moun- 
tains much snow 
falls, and, sliding 
down the moun- 
tain sides in the 
form of ava- 
lanches, it gath- 
ers in the valleys 
to produce 
streams of ice, or 
glaciers (Fig. 
201). These move 
slowly down the 
valleys until they 
reach a point be- 
low the snow line 
where the ice 
melts . They 
Fig. 201. there deposit 

A glacier in the Swiss Alps. terminal mo- 

raines, which, 
though smaller, resemble the moraines made by the conti- 
nental glaciers of the Ice Age. The Rhone and many other 
rivers are supplied with water by the melting of the Alpine 
glaciers. 




People and Government. — People who dwell among 
mountains develop a spirit of independence, as is illus- 
trated by the story of William Tell. Thus we find that, 
as early as 1291, an agreement was made among a few of 
the small Swiss states, or cantons, for mutual protection 
against oppression. Many a time since then foreigners 



SWITZERLAND 



303 



have attempted to conquer the Swiss ; but aided by the 

difficult approaches to their country, and by the mountain 

fastnesses to which they could retreat, they have been 

able to maintain their freedom, 

although the entire area of 

the country is only one-third 

that of Pennsylvania. Their 

twenty-two, cantons, united 

somewhat as are our own states, 

now constitute a republic, whose 

neutrality is guaranteed by the 

Great Powers of Europe. 

But while there is one stable 
government, there is not one com- 
mon language. The country is 
most open toward the north, for 
the plateau of Switzerland merges 
into that of Germany. Naturally, 
therefore, German-speaking people 
are most abundant, making up 72 
per cent of the population. The 
approach from France is much 
more difficult, and the French 
population constitutes only 22 
per cent of the whole, while but 
5 per cent speak Italian. 




Fig. 202. 
A Swiss peasant costume. 



Farming. — Owing to the 
mountainous condition, only 
one acre in nine is fit for the plough. Yet agriculture is 
the principal industry. On the lower lands grain, grapes, 
and the silk- worm are raised, as in the neighboring coun- 
tries ; and on the lower mountains dairy-farming is impor- 
tant, as might be expected. The population is so dense, 



304 



EUROPE 



however, that much food must be imported, though some 
products, such as cheese and condensed milk, are exported. 
Manufacturing. — Switzerland is very poor in mineral 
deposits, and coal is entirely lacking. This scarcity of 
raw materials would suggest that there is little manufac- 
turing, but the inference is false. That the Swiss possess 
marked mechanical skill is indicated by the remarkable 
wood carving for which they have long been noted. Like 




A view of Lake Lucerne. The wall on the left bounds a road which is cut in 
the rock on the mountain side. 



New Englanders, in spite of the absence of coal, cotton, 
and ore deposits, they have engaged extensively in the 
manufacture of light articles, such as textile goods, jewel- 
lery, etc. 

Some other facts, too, are favorable to the Swiss. Owing 
to the steep slopes, and to the plentiful supply of water from 
the snow-covered mountains, water power is so abundant that 
Switzerland is taking a leading place in the use of such power 
for the generation of electricity. 

Also, while nature presents great obstacles to internal 



SWITZERLAND 



305 



commerce, excellent materials for road building are every- 
where present ; and Switzerland, unlike Russia, takes pride in 
its especially fine roads (Fig. 203). Further than that, the com- 
mercial position 
of Switzerland is 
advantageous, 
since it is entirely 
surrounded by 
densely populated 
countries which 
supply raw ma- 
terials and fur- 
nish a market for 
manuf act ur ed 
goods. The influ- 
ence of the latter 
fact upon the cities 
is very marked. 

Leading Cities. 

— The largest 

city, Zurich, on 

Lake Zurich, is 

an important 

railway centre. 

The St. Gothard 

railway, which 

runs northward 

from Genoa and 

Milan, connects 

the city with Italy, while other railways bring it in touch 

with France, Germany, and Austria. These roads are 

especially important for the introduction of foods and 

raw materials for manufacture. Therefore Zurich is the 

centre of one of the principal manufacturing districts, 




Fig. 204. 

The Matterhorn peak, one of the steepest in Switzer- 
land. 



306 EUROPE 

t 

and is itself especially noted for the manufacture of silks, 
cotton, and machinery. 

The St. Gothard Tunnel, from which the railway takes its 
name, is the longest tunnel in the world, and is a marvel of 
engineering skill. Before reaching the main tunnel several 
smaller ones are entered, through which the train winds in a 
spiral course, so that once or twice a passenger comes out of 
the mountain almost directly over the point where he entered 
it ; and in some cases he can see, far below him, two places, 
one above the other, at which the train entered to follow its 
spiral course in the mountain rock. This method of construc- 
tion is rendered necessary because the grade is so steep that a 
train could not be drawn directly up a straight track. The 
main tunnel, which is nine and one-fourth miles long, is quite 
straight. Since silk-making is the chief manufacturing indus- 
try in Switzerland, this tunnel, by opening connection with 
the raw silk market of northern Italy, has greatly aided in its 
development. The value of such tunnels is further indicated 
by the fact that, notwithstanding the great expense, another, 
the Simplon Tunnel, is now being built a short distance west 
of the St. Gothard. 

Basel, which, with its suburbs, forms the second 
centre of population in Switzerland, is the busiest railway 
point in the country. It is on the main line of the St. 
Gothard railway, and on the Rhine where it enters Ger- 
many from Switzerland. Why is its position, near both 
France and Germany, favorable to manufacturing- ? 

Geneva, situated on the southwestern end of Lake 
Geneva, where the Rhone enters France, is a noted educa- 
tional centre. It is on a very ancient and important trade 
route from southern France to Germany (p. 235), and 
therefore has excellent railway connections. Water power 
is much used in generating electricity for use in manufac- 



SWITZERLAND 307 

turing, and the city has long been distinguished for the 
manufacture of jewellery and scientific instruments. 

Berne, the capital, is centrally located and an important 
stronghold ; but because it has a less favorable situation for 
commerce, it is a much smaller city than those mentioned. 

These Swiss cities are situated upon the plateau because 
the climate and soil are more favorable than among the 




Fig. 205. 
Lake Lucerne. 

mountains, and because food and raw materials for manu- 
facture are more easily brought there. Their commerce 
is extensive, since they import much raw material and 
pay for it by the export of manufactured goods and dairy 
products. 

Scenery and Tourists. — Many of the Swiss cities are beauti- 
fully situated upon lakes, and within sight of mountain peaks 
always covered by snow. Lucerne, for example, is surrounded 
by most beautiful and varied scenery. The city is located 



308 EUROPE 

upon the star-shaped Lake Lucerne, and lofty mountains rise 
in the immediate neighborhood (Figs. 203 and 205). Mt. 
Rigi is near by, from whose summit one obtains a magnificent 
view of the lake, bordered by green meadows and numerous 
villages over four thousand feet below, while in several direc- 
tions, as far as the eye can reach, are the crests of stupendous, 
jagged mountains. On account of such scenery Switzerland 
is the most noted summer resort of Europe, and the entertain- 
ment of visitors is one of the leading occupations of the people. 
There are many hotels and fine roads ; and some of the lower 
mountain tops may be reached by rail. Every summer many 
Americans cross the ocean to enjoy the Swiss scenery. 

Review Questions. — (1) What are the principal physiographic 
features? (2) How does the temperature vary ? (3) What about the 
rainfall? (4) Tell about the glaciers. (5) Give reasons why the 
Swiss have been able to maintain their independence. (6) What 
about their language? (7) What about raw materials? (8) Give 
reasons for the development of manufacturing. (9) For what is Zurich 
important? (10) Tell about the St. Gothard Tunnel. (11) Tell about 
(«) Basel. (1>) Geneva, (c) Berne. (12) Why do so many tourists 
visit Switzerland? 

Suggestions. — (1) What other factors besides altitude cause 
great variety of climate in Switzerland ? (2) How T may the lakes 
act as filters and regulators for the rivers? (3) The Rhone enters 
Lake Geneva laden with sediment derived from the glaciers ; but it 
leaves the lake clear of sediment. By such deposits extensive deltas 
ai-e built in all of the lakes. Of what value is that fact ? (4) What 
special reasons are there for giving particular attention to the study 
of English and other foreign languages in the Swiss schools ? (5) Why 
has Switzerland, unlike many European countries, not come into pos- 
session of colonies ? (6) Find the meaning of referendum and 
popular initiative in Swiss legislation. (7) W"hy should Switzerland 
be selected as a place of refuge by persecuted people and political 
refugees from other nations? (8) Why did Calvin take refuge in 
Switzerland ? (9) Read that portion of the story of William Tell 
which is supposed to have occurred about Lake Lucerne. (10) Find 
out about Louis Agassiz : where born ; where he later lived ; and 
what he did to establish his explanation of the Great Ice Age. 



XVIII. ITALY. 

Map Questions (Fig. 200). — (1) Of what does the shape of Italy 
remind you? (2) How does its latitude compare with that of 
Spain? (3) What neighboring islands belong to it? (4) Point 
out the principal river. (5) How are the lofty mountains in the 
north likely to affect the climate ? (6) What countries border 
Italy ? (7) What seas border the peninsula ? (8) How does its 
position seem to be advantageous for commerce? 

Extent and Position. — Italy is "the very heart of the 
Mediterranean lands, and plays a great part as a link in 
the chain of communication between northwestern Eu- 
rope and the Far East." For example, mails from London 
to India go by rail to Brindisi in southeastern Italy, and 
thence by steamer. What countries in Africa lie nearest 
to Italy? (Fig. 297). Estimate the distance to them. 

The area of Italy, including the islands of Sicily and 
Sardinia, is only a little greater than that of Colorado, 
but its population is about 32,000,000. It is the smallest 
of the six Great Powers, but is the most densely popu- 
lated of any excepting the United Kingdom. Name the 
Powers. 

People and Government. — The inhabitants of Italy are a 
mixture of many races. In early times, the central position 
of the Italian peninsula was of importance in aiding the 
government at Rome to control the lands bordering on 
the Mediterranean sea. At that time people from the sur- 
rounding lands of Europe, Asia, and Africa were brought to 
the peninsula, often as slaves captured in war. Later, when 

309 



310 



EUROPE 



the power of the Roman Empire was weakened, hordes of 
barbarians invaded Itaty. Nevertheless, the permanent 
settlers have invariably been won over to one language ; 

and Italian, 
which is a 
growth out of 
the speech of the 
ancient Romans, 
is now the uni- 
versal tongue. 

For centuries 
after the fall of 
Rome, Italy was 
broken up into a 
number of sepa- 
rate and inde- 
pendent king- 
doms ; but here, 
as in other coun- 
tries, the ten- 
dency of recent 
times has been 
toward unity. In 
1860 several of the independent states united to form the 
kingdom of Italy ; and later others were added until, in 
1870, or about the same time that the German Empire was 
formed (p. 279), the present kingdom was established 
with Rome as its capital. Like most of the European 
countries, Italy is governed by a limited, or constitutional, 
monarchy. 

Physiography and Climate. — The Italian peninsula is 
mountainous throughout most of its extent. In the north 




Fig. 206. 
An Italian girl carrying charcoal. 



ITALY 



311 



are the Alps, some of whose highest peaks are on the 
boundary line between Italy and Switzerland. The 
Alpine ranges curve around in northwestern Italy and 
join the Appen- 
nines, which ex- 
tend the entire 
length of the 
peninsula and 
form its very 
backbone. The 
principal low- 
lands, therefore, 
are the narrow 
coastal plains 
and the Po 
valley. 

We think of 
Italy as a sunny 
land of flowers, 

although Milan and Venice are on nearly the same parallel 
as Montreal. One reason for the pleasant climate is that 
the lofty Alps form a great wall which cuts off the cold 
north winds. Another reason is that the peninsula is 
under the equalizing influence of the Mediterranean, whose 
waters have a temperature of over 50°. On these accounts 
the Italian winters are mild, and in the extreme south the 
temperature seldom falls to the freezing point. 

Much of Italy has an abundance of rain ; but, excepting 
in the north, the greater part comes in winter. The sum- 
mer drought is due to the fact that the horse latitude belt 
moves northward in summer (p. 34) ; therefore southern 
Italy at that season resembles southern Spain in climate. 




Fig. 207. 
An Italian team at Naples. 



312 EUROPE 

Italy has more rainfall than Spain, partly because it is 
farther north and partly because of the differences in the high- 
lands. Notice (Fig. 172) that while nearly half of Spain is 
south of the fortieth parallel, only the southern part of Italy 
reaches below that parallel. Therefore, the influence of the 
horse latitudes is felt much less in Italy than in Spain. We 
learned (p. 241) that the highlands of Spain caused the vapor 
of the ocean winds to condense on their slopes, and that the 
interior was therefore dry. But the Appennine highlands of 
Italy are near the centre, and thus cause rain on both sides of 
the peninsula. The slopes of the Alps likewise influence the 
rain, causing the heaviest rainfall in the north. Thus in 
many parts of Italy there is moisture enough for farming. 

Agriculture. — Such a climate, together with a fertile 
soil, helps to explain why agriculture is the principal 
industry in Italy. Among the products are many that 
thrive in semi-tropical climates, as well as others that are 
common in the countries of northern Europe. The cli- 
mate is so favorable that, by the aid of irrigation, from 
four to ten crops may be raised in a year. 

The most extensive farming district is the Po basin. Long- 
before the dawn of human history this valley was merely an 
arm of the Adriatic Sea ; but as centuries passed, it was partly 
filled with sediment brought by the many mountain streams. 
The Po is even now building its delta out into the Adriatic (Fig. 
200). By an uplift of the sea bottom this region was finally 
changed to dry land. How does this history compare with 
that of the South American plains ? (p. 99). These plains of 
the Po valley are very fertile, and there is an abundance of 
rainfall ; yet the people depend upon irrigation more exten- 
sively than in any other part of Europe. 

There are several reasons for such extensive irrigation. In 
the first place the fact that the tributaries have their sources 
in the mountains, and often in the glaciers and snows of the 



ITALY 



313 



Alps, insures a permanent supply of water to the gently slop- 
ing land. Besides this, the rivers frequently flow through 
lakes — some of them among the most beautiful in the world 
— which act as great reservoirs for water supply. 

At one season of the year these streams rise in flood. Ex- 
plain why. Since the floods would devastate the country un- 
less they were controlled, dikes are common here as in 




Fig. 208. 

A herd of goats in the streets of Naples. These are driven ahout the city, 
and even into the houses, to he milked. 



Holland. Diking not only prevents the water from spreading 
over the plains, but it also checks the rivers from depositing 
their load of sediment there, as was formerly done. Some of 
the sediment is therefore left in the river beds, which are 
thus slowly built up higher and higher. As a result, the dikes 
must likewise be raised. Hence the lower Po, like the lower 
Rhine, is higher than the surrounding land. 

Where irrigation is so easy, the extensive cultivation 
of rice is possible. This is an important crop in northern 



314 EUROPE 

Italy, but corn and wheat are raised in still greater quan- 
tities. Grapes are cultivated to such an extent that Italy 
ranks second among the wine-producing countries of the 
world ; and so many silk -worms are reared that raw silk 
is the most valuable export of the country. Among the 
other important products are eggs, which are exported in 
large quantities ; also olives, oranges, lemons, flax, hemp, 
and wool. 

One great drawback to the proper development of agricul- 
ture is the presence of broad, marshy tracts infested with 
mosquitoes whose bite causes malaria. This is true to such 
an extent in the southern half of the country, that vast areas 
have been abandoned, although they are adapted for irrigation 
and have a fertile soil and a warm climate. It is stated that 
two-thirds of the railway officials in Sicily are attacked by the 
fever every summer, and that one-sixth of the entire popula- 
tion of Italy suffers from it. It is not to be wondered at, 
therefore, that the Italian government is seriously considering 
what steps may be taken to drain the swamps. 

Some of the mountain slopes are also unsuited to agricul- 
ture ; but they often form excellent pasture land, to which the 
animals are driven in summer. There are extensive forest 
tracts under government supervision, as in Germany. Among 
the important Italian trees is the chestnut, which is planted 
in groves for the nuts, which are used as a food by the poor. 

Mining and Fishing. — The fact that the rocks of the Italian 
peninsula have been formed in recent geological times accounts 
for the general absence of valuable minerals. There is a little 
iron, zinc, and copper ore ; but the most important mineral 
product is the sulphur of Sicily ; indeed, until a few years ago 
this island produced most of the sulphur used in the world. 
Another important mineral product is marble, of such rare 
beauty that it is prized the world over. 

Fishing is also important; but the fish of the Mediterranean 
are quite different from those of the North Atlantic. Among 



ITALY 



315 



the peculiar products of the sea are precious coral and sponges. 
You will remember that we found sponge fishing important 
also among the Bahama Islands east of Florida. 

Manufacturing. — As 
in Switzerland, electri- 
city generated by water 
power supplies the 
place of coal to some 
extent. Consequently 
there is more manufac- 
turing than one might 
infer from the lack of 
fuel. While much raw 
silk is produced, and 
there is some silk man- 
ufacturing, a large part 
of the silk is sent to 
France, Switzerland, 
and elsewhere, to be 
made into cloth. There 
are also factories for 
woollen, cotton, and flax 
weaving, and for other 
purposes. 

Most European coun- 
tries take pride in their 

fine art galleries ; but Italy far surpasses them all and is the 
very storehouse of art, whether architecture, painting, or sculp- 
ture be considered. Accordingly, the characteristic manufac- 
tured articles are those of an artistic nature, as glass work, 
lace, earthenware, statuary, wood carving, coral carving, and 
straw plaiting. In what other country have we found that the 
artistic taste of the people greatly affects their manufactures ? 




Fig. 209. 

The leaning tower of Pisa, which has become 
tilted because of settling on one side. 



316 



EUROPE 




Principal Cities. — Estimate the average width of the 
Italian peninsula. Since it possesses many excellent har- 
bors, we may 



expect to find 
numerous large 
cities along the 
coast, as in Great 
Britain. 

Najjles and 
Vicinity. — The 
most populous 
city is Naples 
(Figs. 207 and 
208) in the 
southern part of 
the peninsula. 
The semicircu- 
lar bay on which 
it is situated presents one of the most magnificent sights in 
the world. On the northwest is the city itself,- — about the 
size of Boston, — rising upon an amphitheatre of hills ; 
toward the east is Mt. Vesuvius (Fig. 211), with the crests 
of the Appennines in the distant background ; and on the 
southeast is a steep, rocky coast, behind which are numer- 
ous villages partly concealed among groves of orange, 
lemon, and palm trees. 

This is one of the most fertile sections of Italy, — thanks to 
the ashes that have been thrown out of Vesuvius, — and the 
agricultural population is one of the densest in Europe. The 
harbor, too, is good, so that there is more shipping here than 
at any other Italian port with the exception of Genoa. But 
the secret of so large a city in this agricultural region is found 



Fig. 210. 

Gate of the Appian Way — one of the ruins of Ancient 
Rome. 



ITALY 



317 



partly in the peculiar character of Italians, who feel a dread of 
isolated homes such as are common throughout the farming 
districts of the United States. Consequently they crowd into 
the villages and cities, even though they must travel a long 
distance to their field of work, or must suffer now and then 
from extreme want. 

Within plain sight of Naples stands Mt. Vesuvius, a cone of 
lava and ashes nearly a mile in height, from whose crater vol- 




Fig. 211. 
A view of Vesuvius, with a part of Pompeii in the foreground. 

umes of steam constantly pour forth. At the time of Christ the 
slopes of this mountain were dotted with productive farms, 
while thriving towns spread over the country at its base. But 
in the year 79 an appalling eruption took place which com- 
pletely buried Pompeii, Herculaneum, and many villages 
beneath showers of ashes and streams of volcanic mud. Since 
then many eruptions have been recorded, the last violent one 
occurring in 1872. During the last half-century the buried 
cities, especially Pompeii, have been unearthed at great labor 
and cost. By these excavations much has been learned about 



318 



EUROPE 



the buildings and customs of the people who lived nearly two 
thousand years ago. . 

At present, tourists daily ascend to the top of Vesuvius. 
There they see one of the most awful sights in the world when 
they cautiously approach to the very edge of the crater — an 
opening perhaps a fourth of a mile across — and peer down 




Fig. 212. 

The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, where the Pope lives. 

into the abyss. Reports like the thunderings of cannon come 
from far below, and lumps of lava as large as a man's head are 
often hurled upward. Not seldom lava lumps rise above the 
mouth of the opening and fall here and there outside, making 
one's visit all the more exciting by the slight danger of being hit. 

Ancient and Modem Rome. — By far the most interest- 
ing spot in Italy is Rome, the " Eternal City," long the 



ITALY 



319 



capital of the ancient world, afterward the capital of the 
empire of the Popes, and now the capital of Italy. 

The site of Rome was well chosen. It lay near the 
centre of the Mediterranean, and near the centre of the 
Italian peninsula as well. In that part of Italy the fertile 
coastal plains are broad and are intersected by the Tiber, 




Fig. 213. 
Interior of St. Peter's. 

the largest river of the country except the Po. In that 
vicinity, also, the Appennines reach their highest altitude, 
which insures abundant water supply for the Tiber and 
for the plains. Moreover, the valley of the Tiber offers 
one of the most convenient routes across the peninsula. 
These are some of the advantages that attracted to ancient 
Rome a population of fully a million, and caused the 



320 



EUROPE 



surrounding country to be thickly settled and carefully 
tilled. 

Now, however, the city contains less than half as many 
inhabitants, while the neighboring plains for miles around, 
though beautiful pasture land, have scarcely a tree or a house 
upon them. The reason for this strange lack of suburban life 
is the very prevalent malaria. At present, the country is of 
use for little else than grazing ; and as soon as summer ap- 




-'I : \\ CUD 
-■ ■-,'-■ -;l..(.-.w- .fir' i- 1 

ilftflltlftiii 



.■ '-L-- ~L;.. _- H 




Fig. 214. 
Ruins of the Colosseum at Rome. 



proaches even the herdsmen flee with their cattle and sheep 
to the mountains. 

The lower course of the Tiber has gradually become so 
choked with sediment that it overflows easily; and drainage was 
so neglected during the Middle Ages, when the petty war lords 
of the neighborhood were fighting, that vast sums of money 
would now be needed to free the lands from standing waters. 
Even the city of Rome is flooded in its lower sections when 
there is an unusual rise of the Tiber. 

But while agriculture and commerce do not flourish near 
Rome, fine residences, public buildings, art galleries, and not- 
able ruins (Fig. 210) are numerous in the city. The dome of 



ITALY 



321 





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Aim 


^kjjjgjjjrr 



St. Peter's (Fig. 213) — the largest and most famous church in 
the world — towers above everything else ; and the Vatican, 
where the Pope resides, is the largest palace in Christendom. 
In the Vatican are some of the finest and most beautiful of 
paintings (Fig. 212). 

The ruins of ancient Rome vie in interest with these products 
of later Rome, and cover so many acres that the city is almost 
as much a tomb as 
a living city. The 
most conspicuous 
relic of the past 
is the Colosseum 
(Fig. 214), a 
huge, oval-shaped 
theatre, open to 
the sky, with 
seats for forty or 
fifty thousand 
persons. In the 
days of the Ro- 
man Empire it was used to witness life and death struggles 
between men, and between men and wild beasts. 

The Forum is another extensive ruin within the city limits. 
It was the great public square, on a lowland between some hills ; 
but its monuments, arches, and other ornaments were covered 
with rubbish during the centuries succeeding the fall of the 
Empire. The excavation of this famous spot has not yet been 
completed, whole buildings, as well as smaller objects, having 
been buried in that locality. 

Other Italian Cities. — With the exception of Rome and 
Naples the large cities of the Italian peninsula are in 
the northern part. The principal city south of Naples is 
Palermo, the capital of Sicily, and about the size of 
Detroit. It is situated in the midst of extensive fruit 
groves. What fruits would you expect to find there ? 



Fig. 215. 
A view of a part of Venice. 



322 



EUROPE 



The first large city north of Rome is Florence, on 
the western base of the Appennines at a junction of roads 

across the moun- 
tains. Straw 
plaiting, mosaic 
work, and silk 
manufacturing 
are important 
Florentine in- 
dustries ; and 
the city is fa- 
mous for its art 
galleries. 

Milan, the 
third Italian 
city in size, 
owes its impor- 
tance largely to 
its location at 
the crossing of 
roads running 
east and west in 
the Po Valley, 
and north and 
south over the 
Alps. Turin 
has flourished 




The " Bridge of Sighs " in Venice, across which prison- 
ers were led to hear their sentence before being 
thrown into a dungeon. 



for a similar reason. From very early times these cities 
have been important trade centres because of their location 
at the crossing of trade routes in a fertile, "densely popu- 
lated valley. The railways across the Alps (p. 306) have 
greatly increased their importance. 



ITALY 323 

Milan possesses a magnificent cathedral built of white 
marble and adorned with one hundred and twenty-two spires 
and over four thousand statues. On the wall of an old monas- 
tery in Milan is Da Vinci's famous painting, "The Last Supper," 
photographs of which are often seen in our homes. The city is 
the centre of the silk trade, and manufactures much cutlery. 

Genoa, although separated from the Po Valley by the 
low Appennines, is the natural port of Milan and Turin. 
Since it is a port of outlet for so fertile a region, and 
is now connected with central Europe by railway (p. 305), 
this city is the most important seaport in Italy. 

The principal seaport of the Adriatic is Venice, one of 
the most interesting European cities. When hordes of bar- 
barians were invading Italy, some of the residents retreated 
to a number of small islands in a lagoon, protected from 
the sea waves by low sand bars. The people developed 
into a hardy, independent race, largely through contact 
with the sea. Their very position forced them to become 
sailors ; and the site of their city was favorable for com- 
merce between central Europe and the East. Protected 
from attack by land, Venice rose in power, and with power 
came wealth. Many beautiful houses, churches, palaces, 
and museums are reminders of the ancient splendor ; but 
the city has fallen, like Spain, partly through too much 
wealth and corruption. 

The city is built upon more than a hundred small islands, about 
two and a half miles from the mainland, with which it is now 
connected by railway. Naturally, canals take the place of 
streets. There are one hundred and fifty canals, the main one, 
or Grand Canal, being flanked on either side by fine residences, 
whose steps lead down into the water. It is crossed by the 
noted marble bridge, the Rialto, and has the beautiful church of 
St. Mark, and the palace of the Doges, near one end. All together 



324 



EUROPE 



nearly four hundred bridges join the different islands, and 
there are many narrow footpaths, but since the chief thorough- 
fares are canals, 
gondolas (Fig. 
217) take the 
place of wagons, 
carriages, and 
street cars. No 
doubt thousands 
of children in 
that city have 
never seen a 
horse. 

San Marino and 
Malta. — San Ma- 
rino, on the op- 
posite side of the 
peninsula from 
Florence, a 1- 
thou g h s u r- 
rounded by lands 
that belong to the 
kingdom of Italy, 
is, like Andorra 
(p. 240), a tiny, independent republic. It is the oldest and 
smallest republic in the world, and owes its independence 
partly to the fact that the city is on a high hill and, therefore, 
difficult to capture. 

South of Sicily is the tiny island of Malta (Fig. 172), which, 
like Gibraltar, belongs to Great Britain, and is strongly fortified. 




Fig. 217. 

A gondola in Venice — the ducal palace, or palace of 
the Doges, is seen on the farther side. 



Review Questions. — (1) In what respects is Italy's position favor- 
able? (2) What about the size of the peninsula? (3) Tell about 
the origin of the people. (4) Tell about the government. (5) What 
are the principal features of the physiography ? (6) What factors 
equalize the temperature? (7) Tell about the rainfall. (8) What 
crops are raised ? (9) Of what value is irrigation ? (10) What con- 



ITALY 325 

ditions especially favor it in the Po Valley? (11) Name the leading 
agricultural products. (12) What about malaria? (13) What min- 
eral products come from Italy ? (14) What other raw products ? (15) 
What is the condition of manufacturing? (16) Write from memory 
a brief description of Naples and vicinity, including Vesuvius and 
Pompeii. (17) Give the reasons for the location of Rome. (18) 
AVhat changes have occurred since the days of the Roman Empire? 
(19) Tell the principal facts about each of the other cities men- 
tioned : (a) Palermo, (b) Florence, (c) Milan, (d) Turin, (e) Genoa, 
(/) Venice. (20) What is said about San Marino and Malta? 

Suggestions. — (1) Great Britain has a population of 330 persons 
to the square mile ; Italy has 280. The riches of the former depend 
largely upon her manufactures ; the latter has little manufacturing. 
What suggestion do you see, therefore, as to the wealth of Italy? 
(2) Why should Italy have been relatively much more important 
in former times than now? (3) What colonies has Italy in eastern 
Africa? Suggest reasons why Italy has so few colonies. (4) What 
must have been the influence upon Genoa and Venice of the discovery 
of the ocean route to India? Why? (5) What must have been the 
influence of the opening of the Suez Canal? Why? (6) Would you 
expect that Italy would have a large navy ? Find out how her navy 
ranks with those of the other five Great Powers ; with that of the 
United States. (7) Mention advantages and disadvantages of life in 
Venice. (8) Mention some of the uses of sulphur. (9) What rea- 
sons can you give for the peculiar occupations taken up by Italian 
immigrants to this country? (10) Make a collection of the different 
famous pictures of the Madonna. (11) Find out about the Catacombs 
of Rome ; the Roads ; the Aqueducts. (12) Find out about some of 
the ancient Romans and Roman customs. (13) Ask some lawyer 
to tell you what influence Roman law has had upon our own law. 
(14) Find some facts about Csesar, Cicero, Dante, and Garibaldi. 



XIX. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



Map Questions (Fig. 200, facing p. 301). — (1) Compare Austria- 
Hungary with Germany in area. (2) Compare the two countries in 
population. (3) Compare the two in number of large cities. In 
which, therefore, would you expect to find most development ? 

(4) About what proportion of the boundary is formed by water? 

(5) What countries border this empire ? (6) How does its latitude 
compare with that of France? Of Italy? (7) What portions are 
mountainous? (8) What would you say about the variety of cli- 
mate ? (9) What sections do not belong to the Dauube basin ? 

Physiography and Climate. — A large proportion of the 

boundary line of Austria- Hungary is determined by moun- 
tain ranges. 
Point out these 
ranges. Notice 
that the Russian 
boundary ex- 
tends across an 
open plain. 
This plain is 
Austria's share 
of Poland, a 
kingdom which 
once extended 
from the Baltic 
Sea to the Car- 
pathian Moun- 
tains. Poland 
was conquered 
and divided be- 

Fig. 218. 

„ A „ tween Austria, 

A street in a small Alpine village of western 

Austria. Prussia, and 

326 




A USTRIA-H UNGAE Y 



327 



Russia, Austria receiving the smallest share and Russia 
the largest. 

Austria-Hungary is one of the most mountainous coun- 
tries in Europe. It includes the eastern half of the Alps 
(Fig. 218), besides several other ranges. These moun- 
tains together form a circle enclosing a broad plain 
(Fig. 219), through which the Danube River flows. At 
two points this circle is completely broken : once near 
Vienna, where the Danube enters the great Hungarian 




Fig. 219. 
The Danube where it 'flows through the Hungarian plain. 



plain (Figs. 200 and 225), and again on the southeastern 
boundary, where the river leaves the plain. 

The Danube Valley is the great trade route of Austria- 
Hungary, since it offers the best passageway through the 
mountains. The fact that the river is navigable from 
Germany to its mouth adds greatly to the value of this 
route. On the southeastern border, where the river 
passes through the mountains in a deep gorge (Fig. 220), 
there is a point, known as the " Iron Gate," where the 
water flows with rapid current ; but a ship canal, cut on 
one side of the river, now leads around these rapids. 



328 



EC HOPE 





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'' 


W ■ i ■ ■'*■ IHI 


'■ .-'•■■ ■-■'■ -^ 


!!K ~ 



Transportation is all the more confined to the river 
route because of the peculiar coast line of Austria- Hun- 
gary. Although the country is next in size to Russia 

among European 
nations, it has 
only a small 
amount of coast. 
Estimate its 
length. There 
a r e n u merous 
harbors, to be 
sure, but they 
are difficult of 
access from the 
interior, because 
of the rugged 
mountains that 
rise from the 
very seashore. 
At only two points on the Adriatic can good harbors be 
reached from the Danube lowlands without difficulty. 
What cities are located at these points ? 

In so mountainous a country there is naturally much 
variation both in rainfall and in temperature. Every- 
where excepting on the higher mountains, however, the 
temperature is favorable for the growth of grains and 
other crops of temperate latitudes. That is, the summers 
are warm and the winters are cold ; but the extremes are 
much greater than in England. Why ? The rainfall of 
the lowlands, which averages little over twenty inches, is 
barely sufficient for agriculture, and the plains of Hun- 
gary are subject to serious drought in summer. 



Fig. 220. 

The gorge where the Danube passes through the moun- 
tains in the southeast. Serviais on the right. The 
" Iron Gate " is not far distant from this scene. 



A US 1 HI A- II UN GARY 



329 



People and Government. — Such a rugged surface, with 
many enclosed valleys, separates the people and favors the 
development of very different customs amongst the inhabit- 
ants of different 
sections. More- 
over, the ease of 
approach from 
the north and 
east has led to 
repeated inva- 
sions from these 
directions. The 
result has been 
that the empire 
of Austria-Hun- 
gary is a mixture 
of many people. 
Germanic peo- 
ple, who form 
about a fourth of 
the entire popu- 
lation, are most 
numerous in 
Austria ; while 
the Magyars, a 
race allied to the 
Mongolian, form 
nearly half the population of Hungary; but races related to 
the Slavs of Russia are more numerous than either of the 
other groups. There are, in addition, large numbers allied 
to the Italians and other peoples (Fig. 221). German is 
the official language and is spoken by the educated classes. 




Fig. 221. 
A Gypsy family and hut in Austria-Hungary. 



330 



EUROPE 



There are at least a dozen different languages in the empire, 
and often two or three are spoken in a single town. To be 
sure, a statement similar to this might be made in regard 
to the United States, for we certainly have a great variety of 
people speaking different languages. But no matter from 
what part of the earth our citizens have come, they have 
usually modified their former customs to an astonishing degree, 
and, in most cases, have become genuine Americans in spirit. 
The principal exception are the Chinamen, who, instead of 




Fig. 222! 
The Parliament building at Vienna. 



identifying themselves with our ideals and interests, in most 
cases remain Chinamen as long as they live. 

The many distinct peoples of Austria-Hungary resemble the 
Chinamen in their tendency to remain apart. They are not 
only dissimilar in religion, ambitions, and customs, but their 
interests are often conflicting; and they are jealous and sus- 
picious of, and often hostile to, one another. 

It has been a difficult matter to bring these people under 
a common rule. Nevertheless, in 1867, the Austrian Empire 
and the kingdom of Hungary were united under Emperor 



A US TRIA-HUNGA R Y 



331 



Joseph to form the empire of Austria-Hungary. Each of 
the countries preserves its own constitution, makes its own 
laws, and is independent of the other in many respects, 
as we found to be the case in Norway and Sweden (p. 251). 
But they work together in matters of common interest, 
such as the army and navy, foreign affairs, and finance. 
Much trouble has arisen because of the different ideals 
and customs of the peoples ; and, quite unlike the German 
Empire, there is danger that the union of Austria-Hun- 
gary may not long endure. 

Natural Resources. — Many of the mountain slopes are 
forest-covered, and in the remoter parts wild animals 
are still found. Since nearly one-third of the empire is 
wooded, lumber forms one of the important resources of 
the country. 

Where the woods have been cleared away, there are 
pastures for sheep and goats. Many cattle are also raised, 
especially on the 
more fertile low- 
lands. 

Near the Adri- 
atic and in the 
warmer valleys 
there are many 
vineyards ; and 
the mulberry is 
raised for the 
silk- worm, as in 

Italy (p. 314) and southern France (p. 226). Flax, 
hemp, corn, sugar beets, and tobacco are other impor- 
tant crops. But the grains, especially wheat, rye, barley, 
and oats, are the staple agricultural products of both 




Fig. 223. 
The wonderfully level Hungarian plain. 



332 EUROPE 

Austria and Hungary. The broad plains of the Danube 
(Figs. 219 and 223) form one of the leading wheat-pro- 
ducing regions of Europe. A large amount of this grain 
is exported, since the people, like the Germans, live much 
upon rye bread. 

There is much mineral wealth in the mountains, including 
deposits of salt, gold, silver, lead, mercury, and copper. The 
Hungarian opal is celebrated for its beauty ; and the excellent 
quality of the clays has made possible the manufacture of fine 
porcelain ware. The mineral quartz supplies the material for 
the Bohemian glass blowers, who make some of the finest ware 
in the world. Their glass is beautifully colored by adding 
small quantities of mineral substances, such as silver, copper, 
and cobalt, mined in the country. 

Both coal and iron are widely distributed (Fig. 113), 
and Austria-Hungary ranks third among the coal-produc- 
ing countries of Europe. Some of the best deposits are 
in the northwest, near Prague, which explains why that 
city is extensively engaged in iron manufacturing. 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — Even at the time of the 
Romans, Austrian iron ore was smelted by the use of char- 
coal, and the people have long been extensively engaged 
in other forms of manufacture. Austria-Hungary does 
not, however, manufacture nearly as much as Great Brit- 
ain, Germany, or France. Owing partly to the poor facil- 
ities for commerce, and partly to lack of education and 
common interests among the people, there has been far 
less development of manufacturing than might be expected 
from the wonderful resources of the country. 

Much of the manufacturing is still done either by hand 
or by very simple machines. But there has been great 
progress in recent years, and numerous cotton, woollen, 



A USTRIA-BUNGAR Y 



flour, and paper mills, iron manufactories, and beet-sugar 
refineries have been set up. There is also silk weaving, for 
in artistic taste many of the Austrians resemble the French 
(p. 228). On the whole, the chief manufacturing region is 
in the northwest, next to Germany, while the principal 
agricultural section is in the central and eastern parts. 




Fig. 224. . 

Cut showing a castle in Austria, a little village at the base of the hill, and a 
mill at the left. Notice the thick walls, formerly of use to protect the 
castle from attack. 

There is an extensive internal commerce along the navi- 
gable rivers and the railways ; but, owing to the limited 
coast line, ocean commerce is much less developed than in 
other large European nations. Austria-Hungary has, in 
fact, a smaller merchant marine than the little country of 
Greece. 

The most natural trade route leads either down the Danube 
into the Black Sea or else westward into Germany, and thence 



334 



EUROPE 



down the Rhine Valley. Why in these directions ? Less than 
one-third of the foreign shipping goes by way of Trieste. This 
means that the greater part of the foreign trade of the empire 
is carried on through foreign ports. What disadvantages do 
you see in that fact ? Trace the chief routes. 




Fig. 225. 
To show the location of Vienna at the crossing of railway routes. 

Principal Cities. — While there are many small cities in 
this empire, there are surprisingly few large ones. The 
two largest, Vienna, the capital of Austria, and Buda- 
pest, the capital of Hungary, are located on the Danube 



A US TRIA-H UNGA R Y 



335 



River and not on the sea-coast. Suggest reasons for this 
fact. 

Vienna, which is larger than Philadelphia, is the great- 
est city in Austria-Hungary and the fourth largest in 
Europe. The reason for its size is found first of all in its 
location (Fig. 225), on a large river in the central part of 
Europe. Moreover, it is situated at an opening between 




Fig. 226. 
A view in Vienna. 

mountains, through which, from the earliest times, the 
best routes have passed from western Europe to Asia, and 
from northern Europe to the Mediterranean. The rail- 
ways which lead from St. Petersburg to Rome, and from 
Berlin and Paris to Constantinople, naturally converge 
toward this point, making the city a great railway and 
trade centre. Trace these roads on Figure 119. What 
countries do they cross ? 



336 



EUROPE 



Vienna is a beautiful city, with many public buildings 
(Figs. 222 and 226), including the palace of the emperor and 
some fine museums. The noted University of Vienna is also 
located here. Naturally there is much manufacturing in and 
near a city so favorably situated for bringing materials, by rail 
or river, from all parts of the kingdom. 

Budapest (Fig. 227), consisting of two towns (Buda 
and Pest) on opposite banks of the Danube, is the seat of 




1 r 1 T 



Fig. 227. 
Looking across the Danube from Pest to Buda. 



the Hungarian government and the home of the emperor 
for a part of each year. These twin cities are located at 
a point where the Danube is easily bridged ; but Buda- 
pest has not so fine a location as Vienna and is only about 
one-third as large. The city is in the midst of the great 
wheat-raising plains of the Danube, and, like Odessa on 
the Black Sea, has naturally become extensively engaged 
in flour manufacture and grain shipment. 



A U STRIA-HUNG AR Y 337 

Prague, the third city of Austria-Hungary, is situated on 
the navigable Elbe, which since early times has been an impor- 
tant trade route. Located in the midst of a rich mineral region, 
it is a noted manufacturing centre, and in population is a little 
larger than Providence, Rhode Island. Trieste, a city about 
the size of Rochester, New York, is the largest Austrian sea- 
port. Although separated from the main part of the country by 
mountain ranges, it is connected with the interior by a rail- 
way. Even as far back as the time of the Romans, the pass 
which the railway takes in crossing the mountains was followed 
as the route of entrance to the Danube Valley. Fiume, south- 
east of Trieste, has an excellent harbor and is rapidly growing 
as a port of export for Hungary. 

Small Countries. — On the boundary between Austria and 
Switzerland is Liechtenstein, a very small independent coun- 
try united with Austria-Hungary by a customs treaty. Two 
other countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, formerly parts of 
Turkey, are now practically a part of Austria-Hungary, and 
are therefore not marked separately on our maps. They 
include the mountainous land northwest of Montenegro and 
Servia. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the physiography of Austria- 
Hungary. (2) Tell about the climate. (3) What is the condition of the 
people? (4) What about the government? (5) Name the principal raw 
products. (6) What is the condition of manufacturing? (7) What 
about the commerce? (8) Give reasons for the location of Vienna. 
(9) Tell about the following cities : (a) Budapest, (b) Prague, (c) Tri- 
este, (d) Fiume. (10) What is said about small countries? 

Suggestions. — (1) How must the construction of tunnels through 
the Alps have affected Austria-Hungary? (2) What would you say as 
to the relative importance of the Danube and Rhine rivers? (3) Find 
some Bohemia glass to see how beautiful it is. (4) In an atlas look 
up Austria-Hungary to find the portions which are called Tyrol, Mora- 
via, Bohemia, and Transylvania. (5) Look up some facts about the 
history of Poland. (6) Suggest reasons for the absence of Austrian col- 
onies. (7) Find out something about the Triple Alliance. (8) Read 
about the influence of Emperor Francis Joseph in holding the different 
parts of the empire together. (9) Find out something about Kossuth. 



XX. THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



Map Questions (Fig. 200, facing p. 301). — (1) What countries 
border Roumania? (2) Name the countries south of the Danube. 
(3) What does the map tell you about the surface of each ? (4) What 
may you expect about the variations in climate on this peninsula? 
Why? About the rainfall? Why? (5) Compare the number of 
large cities with the number in Germany and Italy. What inferences 
do you draw concerning the condition of the people? (6) Compare 
the area of Turkey in Europe with that of your own state. 

Physiography and Climate. — This double-pointed penin- 
sula is bounded on one side by the Adriatic and Mediter- 
ranean seas, on 
the other by the 
iEgean and 
Black seas. It 
is unlike other 
European pen- 
insulas in hav- 
ing a very long 
land boundary. 
Trace it. 
Throughout al- 
most its entire extent the surface is mountainous, which 
offers an explanation of the large number of separate 
countries on the peninsula. How ? Many of the valleys 
are suitable to agriculture, the most extensive being the 
plains of the Danube in Roumania and Bulgaria. 

The climate varies greatly from mountain to valley and 
from interior to seashore. Along the southern coast 
the winters are mild, as elsewhere near the Mediterranean ; 
but in the northeast, near Russia, hot summers are fol- 

338 




Fig. 228. 
A view in Bulgaria, showing its rugged surface. 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



339 



lowed by cold winters, when icy winds sweep down from 
the Russian steppes, and the Danube freezes over. 

In so mountainous a land there is also much variation 
in rainfall. On the western slopes, for example near the 
shores of the Adriatic, there is an abundance of rain : but 
on the east coast and in the interior valleys, especially in 
Greece, there is so little rain that agriculture depends 




A scene just outside Constantinople. These are' Asiatic black buffaloes, which 
are used there as beasts of burden. 



upon irrigation. Why is this true of Greece particularly? 
(p. 161). 

People. — The eastern point of the Balkan peninsula 
comes so close to Asia that it has been called a " bridge " 
between Europe and Asia. At each of two points, the 
Dardanelles and the Bosporus, the continents are separated 
only by a narrow strait, a barrier so slight that the animals 
and plants of the country belong to both European and 
Asiatic species. 

This region has also been a bridge for the passage 
of many peoples. The early inhabitants of the Balkan 
peninsula belonged to several divisions of the white race. 



340 



EUROPE 




Among these were the Greeks, who settled along the coast 
and there developed the Greek civilization. Later the 

region came under the control of 
the Romans, and at that time Con- 
stantinople became renowned for 
its trade. With the decline of the 
Roman Empire, Slavs from the 
Russian plains entered and drove 
the Greeks back to the coast and a 
considerable body of the Romans 
to the mountainous interior. After- 
ward these Slavs, known as Ser- 
vians and Bulgarians, accepted 
Christianity, adopted civilized 
ways, and finally became rulers 
of the peninsula. 

Still later came the Moham- 
medan Turks, who, crossing from Asia, brought the penin- 
sula under their dominion. Wherever the Turks went 
they brought ruin ; and for four centuries, while the rest 
of Europe was advancing, they held this region in sub- 
jection and prevented progress. During the nineteenth 
century, however, many of its people have thrown off the 
Turkish yoke, so that Turkey in Europe is now less than 
one-quarter as large as it was a hundred years ago. Never- 
theless, the effects of long Turkish misgovernment are 
clearly seen throughout the entire peninsula. 

Aside from Roumania, five nations now occupy the 
Balkan peninsula : Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, the 
Ottoman Empire or Turkey, and Greece ; and two others, 
Bosnia and Herzegovina, are under control of Austria- 
Hungary (p. 337). 



Fig. 230. 
A Roumanian peasant. 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



341 



Montenegro. — This tiny principality, which is smaller than 
the state of Connecticut, has maintained, its independence 
largely because of its situation among the mountains. The 
country is of slight importance ; its soil is so poor that there 
is little agriculture ; there is 
less manufacturing, and not 
a single railway. The prin- 
cipal occupation is cattle 
raising. 

Servia. — Bordering on 
southern Hungary, Servia 
shares some of the advan- 
tages of that country, in- 
cluding navigation of the 
Danube. Since much of 
its surface is rugged and 
heavily forested, only a 
small portion is culti- 
vated. Among the leading 
products are corn, wheat, 
and other grains, remind- 
ing us of Hungary. 
There is also much fruit 
raising, particularly that of 
grapes and plums, which, 

when dried, are sold as raisins and prunes. Many cattle, 
sheep, and pigs are raised for export, the pigs being 
allowed to roam in the oak and beech forests. Why there ? 

The resources of Servia are only partially developed. 
For example, although coal, iron, lead, silver, and other 
metals are known to exist, there is very little mining and 
not much manufacturing. It will require more time to 
recover from the centuries of Turkish misrule. 




Fig. 231. 

A Turkish lady, at Constantinople, in 

street dress. 



342 



EUROPE 



The capital of the kingdom is Belgrade, a city finely 
situated upon the Danube. 

Roumania and Bulgaria. — These two countries have 
much in common. Although the Danube separates them 
for a long distance, they together control its lower course. 
This is a fact of much importance to Austria-Hungary. 
Why ? Broad plains suited to agriculture border the 
Danube in both countries, though the plains are far more 
extensive in Roumania than in Bulgaria. Naturally, there- 
fore, there is much farming. While each of these king- 




Fig. 232. 
An oil field iu Roumania. Each of the derricks in this valley is over an oil well. 

doms has been freed from Turkish rule, Bulgaria is still 
tributary to that country ; that is, although in most re- 
spects independent and self-governing, it is obliged to pay 
an annual tribute in money to Turkey. 

In both countries wheat and other grains are among the 
chief crops. But the warmer climate of Bulgaria, south 
of the Balkan Mountains, permits the culture of products 
that cannot be raised extensively in Roumania ; for 
example, the mulberry for silk, and roses for the valua- 
ble perfume, attar of roses. Many sheep as well as other 
live stock are raised in each country ; in fact, herding is 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



343 



almost the sole industry on the barren steppes of eastern 
Roumania. There are large tracts of forest in each, but 
there is more in Bulgaria, owing to its rugged surface, 
than in Roumania. Each country has valuable mineral 
deposits ; but, as in Servia, there is little mining. Why ? 
Nor is there much manufacturing, excepting such hand 
work as the manufacture of Turkish rugs. 

With so slight development of the resources, there are 
few large cities. By far the largest is Bucharest, the 
capital of Roumania. Find the capital of Bulgaria. 

Turkey in Europe. — The Turks, who are Moham- 
medans, are controlled by ideas very unlike those of other 
Europeans. 

They are un- ^ Black Sea 

progressive, 
and inclined to 
grant no rights 
to Christians, 
many of whom 
still live in Tur- 
key. Their ruler 
or Sultan has 
absolute power, 
which he exer- 
cises with little 
conscience, and 
the government 
is the worst in 
Europe. 

Since these people entered Europe from Asia and seized 
countries belonging to Christians, it would seem that the Great 
Powers of Europe might unite to drive them back. That they 




Fig. 233. 
Map showing the location of Constantinople. 



344 



EUROPE 



fail to do this is not because Turkey is considered a desirable 
neighbor, but rather because of jealousies among the Powers. 
The fact that the Turks control the narrow strait leading from 
the Black Sea gives them a strong position. Russia would, 
beyond question, like to obtain control of the strait, but other 

nations object. 
Why? Thus 
Turkey in Eu- 
rope is permitted 
to continue its 
existence. We 
have already 
seen, howeve r, 
that she has lost 
much of her terri- 
tory during the. 
nineteenth cen- 
tury (p. 340). 




Fig. 234. 
St. Sophia, a beautiful church in Constantinople now 
used as a Mohammedan mosque. This illustrates the 
Byzantiue style of architecture — Byzantium having 
been the early name of Constantinople. 



Not only are 
the mass of 
Turks in igno- 
rance and pov- 
erty, but they are not encouraged to develop the resources 
of their land. There are valuable mineral deposits, prac- 
tically unworked ; the great forest tracts have been nearly 
destro} ;r ed ; and broad areas of farm land are cultivated 
by the use of oxen and tame buffaloes, and by the crude 
methods of early centuries. Among the principal crops 
are wheat, corn, flax, hemp, and tobacco. Figs, and grapes 
for raisins, are also raised. Cattle and sheep are numerous. 

As in other slightly developed states, there is little produc- 
tion beyond raw materials ; and while other nations in Europe 
have rapidly developed in manufacturing, Turkey produces 
chiefly hand-made goods. Among the latter are the famous 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



345 



Turkish rugs, and some very beautiful articles in leather and 
metal, showing that the Turks have much artistic skill. With 
so little industry there is naturally almost no means of trans- 
portation ; in fact, the roads are everywhere bad, and railways 
are almost lacking (Fig. 119). 

Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, 
has been famous for many centuries. Being situated on 
the Bosporus, where the beautiful, river-like outlet of 
the Black Sea passes through a valley in the low plateau, 
it commands the channel through which the commerce of 
the Black Sea 
must pass. This 
is a natural site 
for a city ; for 
in addition to 
its location on 
this water route, 
it is the point 
where the cross- 
ing can best be 
made from Eu- 
rope to Asia. 
The presence of 
a harbor on the 
European side 
— a small bay at the river mouth called the " Golden 
Horn " — and the fact that the founders were Europeans 
trading in Asia, rather than Asiatics trading in Europe, 
are reasons why a large city has grown up on the European 
and not on the Asiatic side. 

The site of Constantinople is so advantageous that it was 
the seat of a Greek colony centuries before the time of Christ. 




Fig. 235. 
A street view in Constantinople. 



346 



EUROPE 



Later the Roman Emperor Oonstantine named the city after 
himself (Constantine and polls, meaning city) and made it the 
capital of the Roman Empire. For centuries it was noted as 
one of the richest and most prosperous cities of Europe. It is 
still a great centre, and ranks seventh in size among European 
cities. It is even larger than our American city St. Louis. 

After being captured by the Turks, Constantinople lost 
much of its beauty ; but some of its ancient splendor still 
remains (Fig. 234). There are palaces, mosques, and other 
interesting and costly buildings ; but almost side by side with 
them are the dwellings of the common people, who live in the 
most squalid poverty. The houses, street scenes, people, and 
customs remind one of Asia rather than of Europe. 



Greece. — The southern end 
of the Balkan peninsula is 
occupied by Greece. Owing 
to the many short mountain 
ranges extending in different 
directions, the coast line is 
irregular, with numerous 
peninsulas, islands, deep bays, 
and fine harbors, formed by 
the sinking of the irregular 
land. The influence of the 
Mediterranean causes a warm, 
pleasant climate, as in south- 
ern Italy ; and the rainfall, 
which is moderate in win- 
ter, is so light in summer 
that irrigation is necessary 
for agriculture. The surface 

is so rough and rocky that large sections are unfit for 

farming. 




Fig. 236. 
A Greek peasant costume. 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



347 



It was in this small peninsula, under what to our eyes 
appear to be very unfavorable conditions, that the mar- 
vellous civilization of ancient Hellas, or Greece, was devel- 
oped. But these conditions really had the tendency to 
develop strong intellectual powers and brave men. The 
sea and mountains protected the races from invasion, and 
the many fine harbors and inlets permitted constant inter- 
course by water. By the commerce which thus arose the 




Fig. 237. 
A view of the Acropolis at Athens. 

Greeks became so acquainted with the sea that they were 
almost as much at home upon it as upon the land. 

In all parts of the world it has been under such general con- 
ditions as these that strong races have been evolved. It was 
true in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, and in the Spanish 
and Italian peninsulas. It is also true in the Japanese Islands, 
the home of the most highly developed Asiatics. 

Because of their ability to navigate the inland seas, the 
European Greeks, in very early times, carried on constant 
communication with the people from whom they had sepa- 
rated, and who still dwelt opposite them, on the coast of 



us 



EUROPE 




Fig. 238. 
A shepherd and sheep in Greece. 



Asia. The arts and customs of their mother country they 
improved upon, and in time became the greatest power in 
the then known world. They developed an art and a 
civilization which, with all our advancement, we have not 
been able to excel. They also became explorers, and 
cruised about the entire shores of the Mediterranean at a 

time when most 
of Europe was 
occupied by 
savages or bar- 
barians. They 
entered into 
trade relations 
with their neigh- 
bors, taught 
them Greek arts, 
and established 
many colonies. Greek arts and literature, we should 
note, decayed with the loss of freedom in the Greek cities 
which were conquered by barbarians from the north. 

Through colonies in the Italian peninsula, and also 
through the immigration of individual Greeks, this people 
exerted a strong influence upon the Romans. Rome finally 
conquered Greece, although much of Roman civilization, 
and therefore the civilization of Europe, was due to Greek 
thought. After the decline of the Roman Empire other 
northern peoples devastated Greece, and finally the Turks 
entered and carried ruin to this as to other parts of the 
Balkan peninsula. Greece is now independent and gov- 
erned as a limited monarchy. 

In this little country there are few natural resources. 
There is no coal, and therefore little manufacturing. 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 



349 



There is some mining, as of lead and zinc ; but the principal 
occupations are herding and agriculture. Large numbers 
of sheep and goats are raised ; and the chief farm products 
are grain, tobacco, olives, and fruits. Among the latter is 
the small variety of grape, known as the currant. These, 
together with raisin grapes, are cultivated in large quanti- 
ties on the steep hillsides and, after being gathered, are 
dried in the warm, drv summer air. 




Fig. 239. 
A general view of Athens. 

The neighborhood of the sea has led the Greeks to 
continue their seafaring life, and they still carry on 
an extensive foreign trade. Many are also engaged in 
fisheries, and in securing bath sponges from the shallow 
sea bottom among the Greek islands. 

Athens, the capital and most important city, with 
about one hundred thousand inhabitants, is situated in- 
land six miles from its port, Piraeus. The principal 
streets of the present city are quite modern, but ruins 
of the ancient Athens are still numerous. The most noted 
buildings, and some of the finest temples of ancient Greece, 
stood upon the Acropolis (Fig. 237), a level-topped rocky 



350 



EUROPE 



hill with precipitous sides. This remarkable stronghold was 
the natural centre for settlements in the surrounding plain. 

Islands near Greece. — The many islands in the neighborhood 
of Greece are either mountain crests or else volcanic cones. 

Occasionally we 
hear of an earth- 
quake shock in 
this island region 
or archipelago, 
showing that the 
mountains are 
still growing. The 
largest island 
near Greece, and 
the last to be 
separated from 
Turkey (1898), is 
Crete (Fig. 172), 
which, like the 
smaller islands, is 
under the control of the Grecian government and inhabited 
mainly by Greeks. The inhabitants are engaged in industries 
that are the same as in Greece itself. 



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tin 

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ne&^Sft 








ml 




^'''fev,. *' ; . 


|' -r?^iffiB 


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Fig. 240. 

View of an olive grove on the island of Corfu, a Greek 
island off the coast west of Turkey (Fig. 200). 



Review Questions. — (1) Describe the physiography of the Balkan 
peninsula. (2) Tell about the climate. (3) State some of the main 
facts in its history. (4) Why were there so many invasions ? (5) Name 
the countries of the peninsula. (6) What can you say about Monte- 
negro? (7) Tell about Servia. (8) In what respects do Bulgaria 
and Roumania resemble each other ? (9) Mention some differences. 
(10) Locate the capitals. (11) Tell about Turkey in Europe : charac- 
ter of the people; government; resources; manufacturing. (12) What 
special reasons are there for a large city at Constantinople? (13) Give 
other facts about the city. (14) Describe Greece: its physiography; 
climate; reasons for former importance ; influence; reasons for decline; 
present condition ; resources. (15) Tell about Athens. (16) What 
can you tell about the islands near Greece ? 



THE BALKAN PENINSULA 351 

Suggestions. — (1) On Figure 119 note the number of railways in 
this part of Europe. Why are there so few ? (2) What reasons can 
you suggest for the fact that these eastern countries are in a constant 
state of unrest? (3) Turkey is occasionally referred to as the "sick 
man of Europe." Why? (4) How was Greece finely situated for the 
trade of the ancient world? (5) Learn some facts about Homer, 
Plato, Aristotle, and other noted Greeks. (6) Read some of the an- 
cient Greek myths. (7) Read about the defence of the Pass of Ther- 
mopylae. (8) What reasons can you suggest for the fact that ancient 
Greece was divided into several independent states, not unlike our own, 
but lacking a federal union ? 

REVIEW OF EUROPE AND COMPARISON WITH NORTH AMERICA 

For area, population, etc., see Appendix II. 

(1) Compare the climate of western Europe with that of the west 
coast of North America (p. 160). (2) Make the same comparison for the 
east coast of North America (p. 162). (3) Explain the resemblances 
and differences (pp. 160-163). (4)" What European countries were 
covered either wholly or partly by an ice sheet in the Glacial Period? 
(Fig. 114). (5) Is the coast line of Europe more or less irregular 
than that of North America? Which continent has the advantage in 
this respect? How is it an advantage ? (6) Name and locate the prin- 
cipal mountain ranges in each continent. Which continent has the ad- 
vantage as to the direction of the ranges ? Why? (p. 162). (7) Name 
and locate the principal rivers in each continent. Which are the larg- 
est ? (8) Draw an outline map of Europe inserting the boundaries and 
names of the countries. (9) How do our larger Western states com- 
pare in area with France and Germany? In population ? (10) Name 
the six Great Powers. (11) Which are the two or three most pro- 
gressive countries ? Give some reasons. (12) What is the prevailing 
kind of government in Europe? In North America? How do you 
account for the difference? (13) Which European country has, per- 
haps, the best location for world commerce? Why? (14) Which is 
best situated for continental commerce? Why? (p. 277). (15) Which 
country of North America has the most favorable position for trade? 
How ? (16) Compare the five largest European cities with the five 
largest in North America as to population. (17) State the main ad- 
vantages of the position of each. (18) Name and locate the five 
largest seaports of Europe (Fig. 172). (19) How do they compare in 
population with New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and San 



352 EUROPE 

Francisco? (20) Name and locate the five largest interior cities and 
compare their population with that of Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, 
Buffalo, and Cincinnati. (21) What cities of Europe and North 
America are near the 46th parallel of latitude? The 50th? The 
60th ? (22) Name some agricultural products common to both Europe 
and the United States. (23) Name others that are found in the United 
States but not in Europe. Why this difference ? (24) In what coun- 
tries of Europe is silk produced? Why do we not raise silk-worms? 
(p. 230). (25) Where are grapes raised extensively? Why not in 
Great Britain? (p. 181). (26) Why is there so little agriculture in 
Scandinavia? What are the leading industries there ? (27) In what 
countries are sugar beets produced extensively? (28) In what coun- 
tries is most lumber obtained? (29) Make a list of the European 
countries which have extensive coal deposits. (30) Which countries 
have little or none? What is the effect on the industries in each case? 
(31) Which countries have little or no mining? (32) Which countries 
have important manufacturing industries? Which have very little? 
Give the reasons for this difference. (33) With which group would 
the United States be classed with regard to mining and manufac- 
turing? (34) Which of the European nationalities have you seen on 
our streets ? (35) Where were the beginnings of civilization in 
Europe? Why there? (36) How do you account for the fact that 
Europeans pay more attention to fine art than Americans do? 

Suggestions. — (1) Find, in the Statesman's Yearbook or else- 
where, the number of men necessary for the standing armies of each 
of the six Great Powers. How do these armies compare in size with 
the standing army of the United States ? (2) What illustrations can 
you give of the fact that nations, like individuals, often flourish for a 
time and then decline ? (3) In the case of nations, what are some of 
the causes of such changes? (4) Is the United States a young or au 
old nation ? (5) Write a paper stating some of the advantages that 
we enjoy over European countries. (6) State some of the advantages 
that they enjoy over us. (7) Which one of the European countries 
would you prefer to visit? Why? (8) How does the prospect for the 
future growth of the United States compare with that of the European 
countries ? Why ? 







^ 



8^**3(^3^ 



fc 




Part IV 

ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND 
ISLAND GROUPS 



XXL ASIA 

Map Questions (Fig. 241). (1) Compare the greatest length and 
breadth of Asia with that of North America (Fig. 434). (2) Compare 
its area with that of other continents. (For- Areas, see Appendix II.) 
(3) Where are the mountains; (4) the plains? (5) Draw an outline 
map of Asia, adding the names and boundaries of the countries. 

(6) Find four large inland seas and lakes. Which have no outlets? 

(7) Find the area of China, India, and Siberia. About how many 
times as large as Pennsylvania is each? (8) What facts concerning 
the climate do you infer from the map ? (9) What does the general 
absence of railways (Fig. 241) tell about the development of the 
people? In what part has there probably been most progress? (10) 
Name some of the large islands near Asia. Name some of the largest 
islands between Asia and Australia (Fig. 338). 

Size and Position. — Asia, the largest of the continents, 
includes almost one-third of the land of the globe. Its 
immense size is shown by the fact that it reaches from 
near the equator to a point halfway between the Arctic 
Circle and the North Pole. How many degrees is that ? 
How many miles ? It is six thousand miles from the Medi- 
terranean Sea to Bering Straits ; and so many degrees 
of longitude are included in Asia that, according to our 
plan for standard time, one would need to change his 
2 a 353 



354 



ASIA 



watch ten different times in going from one extreme to the 
other. How many changes are necessary in crossing the 
United States ? (Fig. 22), 

This great land mass, which reaches to within fifty miles of 
North America, is united to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, 




Fig. 242. 
The volcano of Fujiyama in Japan. 

while for a long distance the two continents are separated only 
by the narrow Red Sea. What is its connection Avith Europe ? 
Why are the two often called Eurasia? (p. 149). In what 
zones does Asia lie ? Is the same true of any other continent ? 

Physiography (Fig. 243). Asia resembles Europe in 
the irregularity of its mountains. While many of them 











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vk Mi v.* i 



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Fig 3, 



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Mi 




PHYSIOGRAPHY 



355 



extend east and west, there are others running nearly 
north and south. Name some of each. The islands and 
peninsulas are due to uplift of the earth's crust, while the 
seas which they enclose occupy depressions between the 
uplifted parts. Since the mountain growth has not en- 
tirely ceased, many of the islands are still slowly rising ; 
and, as the rocks move and break, earthquake shocks are 
common, some of them being terribly destructive. There 




Fig. 244. 
The gorge of the Yangtse-kiang in China. 

are also many volcanoes (Fig. 242); in fact, the islands 
off eastern and southeastern Asia form the most active 
volcanic and earthquake region in the world. 

Although northern and western Asia is a vast plain, so much 
of the continent is mountainous that more than one-twelfth of 
the surface has an elevation above 10,000 feet. Here are found 
the Himalayas (meaning abode of snow), whose loftiest peak, 
Mt. Everest (29,000 feet), is the highest in the world. Locate 
it. And here, too, are other ranges whose peaks rise above 



356 



ASIA 



valleys themselves 11,000 feet above sea level, or higher than 
most mountains. Between the mountains are table-lands, like 
that of Tibet (Fig. 245), whose elevation is from 10,000 to 
15,000 feet, or in places as high as the loftiest peaks of the 
Alps. 




Fig. 245. 
A farm-house iu bleak Tibet, with a snow-capped mountain in the distance. 

Much of central Asia is so arid that some of the rivers 
from the mountains end in the desert sands, which are 
often heaped by the wind into low hills or dunes. But 
from the margin of the great central highland large rivers 
flow north, south, and east to the sea. On an outline map 
of Asia draw heavy lines to show the chief mountain 
chains, and then add the larger rivers with their names. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 



357 



Fed by the rains, snows, and melting glaciers of the 
mountains, these streams have a great volume of water 
and bear immense quantities of sediment, which they 
spread out over their broad flood plains or build into deltas 
in the sea. In the east and south these fertile, river-made 
plains are valuable for agriculture, and are the seats of 
the densest populations in the whole world. 




Fig. 246. 
A tropical scene in a village in Ceylon. 



Many of the rivers are deep and navigable (Fig. 244) ; yet 
some of the largest lose much of their value for transportation 
because they flow northward over the cold plains of Siberia. 
This reminds us of the rivers of northern Canada, which also 
flow into the Arctic and are therefore frozen during a large 
part of the year. 

A great variety of mineral wealth is revealed by the weather- 
ing of the upturned mountain rocks. Precious stones, includ- 
ing diamonds, sapphires, and rubies ; the precious metals, gold, 
silver, and platinum ; the baser metals, such as iron, copper 



358 



ASIA 



and lead ; and vast coal beds are all found in various parts of 
Asia. But, because of the peculiar character of the people, 
the great mineral wealth has been only slightly developed. 

Climate. — In so vast a land, with such differences in 
elevation, there are, naturally, many different climates. 
Tropical heat is found in southern Asia, with dense for- 
ests in the belt of calms (Fig. 246), and in those places 
where ocean winds blow over the land ; but where winds 




Fig. -247. 
A group of Persian natives on the desert of eastern Asia. 

from the ocean cannot reach, there are broad deserts (Fig. 
247). Upon the mountain slopes (Fig. 245), and in the 
more northern latitudes, the climate is either temperate or 
frigid, as in North America and Europe. 

For example, the climate about Peking resembles that of 
northeastern United States ; and the plains of central Siberia 
resemble in climate the plains of Minnesota and Dakota, and 
produce the same crops. Such a climate, with warm summers 
and very cold winters, is called continental ; and since Asia is 
the largest continent, the continental climate is best developed 
there. Thus where the Arctic Circle crosses the Lena Kiver, 



CLIMATE 359 

the average temperature is 60° in July and 60° below zero 
in January, a range of 120° between summer and winter. This 
is the lowest winter temperature known in the world, and this 
point is therefore called the cold pole of the earth. 

During the winter, when such a cold blanket of air covers the 
interior of Asia, the wind blows outward toward the warmer 
ocean, producing the winter monsoon (pp. 34-37) . Accordingly, 
throughout most of Asia the winter rainfall is light. Why ? 
But in summer, when ocean winds blow toward the warm land, 
there is abundant rain near the coast, especially where the damp 
summer monsoons rise over the mountains, as in India(Fig. 33). 

As in northwestern United States, where the Cascade Ranges 
drain the prevailing westerlies of their moisture, the mountains 
of Asia cause the summer monsoons to reach the interior with 
little vapor. It is for this reason that a large part of the 
interior of Asia is arid, and often such a complete desert that 
it is shunned by all living things. That this arid country is 
growing even more arid, is indicated by the fact that the Aral 
and Caspian seas are surrounded by salt plains formerly cov- 
ered with shallow water. During the last century the Caspian 
has grown decidedly smaller, having lost fully seven thousand 
square miles of its area through evaporation. 

Plants and Animals. — The cold northern part of 
Siberia, like northern Europe and America, is tundra. 
Describe it (p. 63). Toward the south the tundra 
grades into the forest, low, stunted trees being followed 
by true forests of evergreens, birches, poplars, etc. Far- 
ther south, where the rainfall is light and the evaporation 
rapid because of the higher temperature, the soil is so dry 
in summer that the forests disappear. These steppes are 
covered with luxuriant grass in the north, but farther 
south the}^ grade into the desert. Since northern Asia 
is really a continuation of Europe, the wild plants and 
animals, as well as the farm products, resemble those 




HE M.N.CCBUFFALO. TIGER 



ELEPHANT 



Fig. 248. 
Some of the animals of Asia. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



361 



of Europe. Name some of the European farm prod- 
ucts. 

In southern Asia, on the other hand, from Arabia to 
China, the plants and animals resemble those of Africa 
rather than those of 
Europe and northern 
Asia (p. 68). One 
reason for this is that 
southern Asia has a 
tropical climate like 
Africa ; another is 
that a mountain 
and desert barrier 
separates northern 
from southern Asia. 
Trace this barrier 
on Figure 243. As 
in Africa, the arid 
portion, including 
Arabia, Persia, and 
central Asia, is the home of the camel (Fig. 248) and 
ostrich (Fig. 300), while the elephant and rhinoceros 
(Fig. 248) live on the savannas and in the tropical jun- 
gles. Southern Asia is also the home of the fierce tiger 
and numerous species of monkeys and apes (Fig. 248). 

It was in Asia, probably the seat of the oldest civilization 
of mankind, that men first learned to make use of some of the 
animals and plants that are now so valuable in all parts of the 
world. No one knows what race first domesticated the horse, 
dog, sheep, and several other animals, nor who first cultivated 
wheat and many other plants ; but long before Europe was 
civilized the people of Asia knew their value. At the time of 




Fig. 249. 
The banyan, or Indian fig tree, from whose 
lower branches shoots descend and take root 
— common in Ceylon and other parts of 
southern Asia. 



362 



ASIA 



Herodotus (about 484-420 b.c.) the people of India grew cot- 
ton and wove it into cloth ; and they kept sheep, horses, cattle, 
and goats. Tea and oranges were introduced into Europe from 
China, and the lemon tree came from India. 

The extent to which the Asiatic people have employed ani- 
mals in their service is indicated by the following facts. On 
the frozen tundras, where none of the other large domesticated 
animals thrive, the reindeer (Fig. 48) not only supplies milk, 
meat, and hides, but is also used as a work animal. The camel, 
whose original home seems to have been Asia, makes human 
habitation possible in the desert (Figs. 248, 265, and 283). 




Fig. 250. 
Native humped cattle used as draught-animals in Burma. 

Elephants are domesticated and made to work in the dense 
tropical forest (Figs. 251 and 277) ; and the buffalo is used as 
a work animal in hot, damp lands where horses find the climate 
trying (Figs. 250 and 274). Among the lofty plateaus and 
mountains, where the air is so rarefied and the slopes so steep 
that other work animals cannot be used, the yak is domesti- 
cated. Upon the steppes, where herds of cattle, sheep, and 
goats are kept, the horse is so necessary to the herder that the 
men almost live in the saddle. Indeed, the word Cossack, applied 
to Russians who dwell on the steppes, means horseman. 



PEOPLE 



363 




People. — Early progress toward civilization was made 
possible in Asia largely because certain portions were 
so favorably situ- 
ated. Th§ flood 
plains of the 
Euphrates and 
of the Indian and 
Chinese rivers 
had a fertile soil 
and an abund- 
ance of water for 
irrigation. They 
were, moreover, 
protected from 
invasion by 
ocean, desert, 
and mountain 
barriers, and the inhabitants could therefore cultivate the 
arts of peace. Among the shut-in valleys of the lofty 
mountains, also, were centres where development was pos- 
sible because so protected from wandering hordes. 

Asiatic peoples, moving into Europe, carried the civili- 
zation of their old home with them, and in time advanced 
much beyond those whom they left behind. In fact, 
while Europeans have been progressing the Asiatics have 
been standing still, and in some cases even falling back. 

It would be difficult to give all the reasons for this last fact, 
but there are three that are prominent. One is the very isola- 
tion which made the first development possible; for the people 
were so cut off and separated geographically that they failed 
to learn from others, as those Europeans who dwelt along the 
Mediterranean were able to do. A second reason is that 



Fig. 251. 

An elephant in Ceylon drawing a cart loaded with 

cocoanuts. 



304 



ASIA 



many Asiatics, like, for example, the Chinese, have felt that 
their civilization was the best, and have therefore refused 

to learn. A third reason is 
found in the wonderful de- 
velopment of navigation by 
Europeans who have thereby 
learned many useful lessons 
from all parts of the world, 
acquired wealth, and founded 
distant colonies. The sea, for- 
merly a protection to many 
Asiatic people, has, in recent 
times, even been used as a 
highway of attack upon them. 
Where European civiliza- 
tion has been adopted, as in 
Japan and parts of India, 
rapid progress has followed. 
This indicates the possibili- 
ties of these people. 
Fig. 252. 

More than half of the 
human race lives in Asia, 
two-thirds of them belong- 
ing to the yellow division (p. 73) while the remainder are 
mainly whites. But although there are more than eight 
hundred million human beings there, most of the conti- 
nent is sparsely settled. The mountain slopes, the cold 
plateaus, the steppes, deserts, forests, and tundras support 
but few inhabitants (Fig. 253). In these places, hunting, 
fishing, and herding are the leading industries. Nearly 
seven-eighths of the people dwell near the coast, especially 
on the river flood plains and deltas of the south and east. 
There almost every foot of available land is cultivated, 
and soil is even transferred to boats on the rivers. 




Chinese women. Notice their feet. It 
is a custom of the Chinese to prevent 
the feet of women from growing. 



PEOPLE 



365 



There is a wide difference between the religions beliefs of 
the Europeans and Asiatics (pp. 93-95). Christianity has 
spread westward along the shores of the Mediterranean, but 
it has made little progress across the desert and mountainous 
land to the east, where earlier religions had a strong foothold. 
Two-thirds of the Asiatics are Brahmins or Buddhists, as were 




Fig. 253. 



their ancestors (Fig. 254). Many others are of the Mohammedan 
faith, which originated in Asia long after Christ, and has not 
only replaced the Jewish and Christian religions in most of 
western Asia, where they started, but has even spread eastward. 

Turkish or Ottoman Empire. — While Constantinople, 
the capital of the Turkish Empire, is in Europe, Turkey 
has ten times as much land in Asia as in Europe. 



366 



ASIA 



Conditions in the Empire. — Turkey in Asia, although 
of little importance among nations at the present time, is 
of peculiar interest to us because of its historical associa- 
tions. It is with- 
in its territory 
that many of the 
places mentioned 
in the Bible are 
located (Fig. 
258) ; here also 
Christ was born, 
as well as the 
prophet Moham- 
med ; and it was 
from this centre 
that much of the 
ancient civiliza- 
tion spread along 
the shores of the 
Mediterranean. 

Much of Tur- 
key in Asia is 
table-land, with 
short mountain 
ranges and ex- 
tinct volcanoes, 
of which Mt. Ar- 
arat is an example. Excepting along the coast of the 
Mediterranean and Black seas, where the wind brings 
vapor, there is little rainfall. The streams are usually 
short and shallow, and there are numerous salt lakes. 
Point out the two principal rivers (Fig. 241). 




Fig. 254. 
Worshipping at a Shinto temple in Japan. 



TURKISH EMPIRE 



367 



Some of the mountain slopes are forested, but elsewhere 
the country is open, and in places suited to herding and 
agriculture. In the valleys, wheat, grapes, olives, figs, 
oranges, and cotton are raised, usually by the aid of irri- 
gation. Smyrna is the most important seaport. Locate 
it. Find Trebizond. 




Fig. 255. 
Spinning as done in Palestine and other parts of Turkey in Europe. 

The inhabitants, though so near Europe, have not advanced 
as Europeans have. The valuable minerals are scarcely 
worked at all; herding and farming are carried on in much 
the same way as in the time of Christ ; and there is practically 
no manufacturing excepting that done by hand (Figs. 255 and 
257). Some of this work, however, is very beautiful, as, for 
example, the Turkish rugs already mentioned (p. 345). 

The unfortunate history of the region furnishes an expla- 
nation of its lack of development. Asia Minor, the peninsula 
between the Mediterranean and Black seas, was the pathway 



368 



ASIA 



for the ancient caravan trade between Europe and Asia. While 
this brought prosperity, it also led to many invasions. More 
than five centuries before Christ the country was conquered by 
the Persians ; two centuries later it came under the control of 
the Greeks ; and later still it became a part of the Roman 
Empire. After that, with the decline of the Roman Empire, 
came invasions by wandering Turks, Tartars, and others. It 
was by this route that the Mohammedan Turks gained a foot- 




Fig. 256. 
A view of Bethany and the mountain slopes near Jerusalem. 

hold in southwestern Europe, and by their occupation devas- 
tated the country. Notwithstanding Mohammedan persecution, 
many of the inhabitants still profess the Christian religion, 
although at great cost, as is proved by the recent terrible 
massacres of the Armenians. 

There are two parts of Turkey in Asia that merit special 
mention ; namely, the Holy Land, and the valley of the 
Euphrates and Tigris rivers, or Mesopotamia. 



THE HOLY LAND 



569 




Fig. 257. 
Armenian women spinning 



The Holy Land (Fig. 258). — This part of Turkey in 
Asia possesses peculiar interest for us. Back of a straight 
coast, with no good harbors, lies a narrow coastal plain, 
beyond which are 
two low mountain 
ranges including 
between them the 
remarkable de- 
pression in which 
the Dead Sea is 
situated. While 
Hebron (Fig. 258) 
is about three 
thousand feet 
above sea level, 
the surface of the 
Dead Sea, a few 
miles to the east, is almost thirteen hundred feet below 
sea level, being the deepest depression on the lands of 
the world. Although fed by the river Jordan (Fig. 259), 
which flows out of a fresh-water lake, the Sea of Galilee 
(Fig. 260), the Dead Sea is so dense from the salt it con- 
tains that a person cannot sink in it. The fact that it is 
salt shows that the climate is arid, for otherwise the 
depression would be filled with water, and, by overflowing, 
the sea would soon become freshened. The Jordan Valley 
lies no farther south than southern Alabama ; yet since it 
is so low and enclosed, its climate is almost tropical. 

Before the coming of the Jews this region was divided 

into small countries, often under the rule of their more 

advanced and powerful neighbors, the Egyptians. Then 

the Jews entered this "promised land" and created a 

2b 



370 



ASIA 



kingdom which attained its greatest power under Solo- 
mon. It was here that many of the events in the Old 
Testament occurred, including the advance in religion 
from the belief in many gods to the acceptance of one all- 
powerful God. Persians, Egyptians, and Romans later 
ruled over Palestine, and it was during the control of the 
latter people that Christ was born at Bethlehem. What 




Fig. 259. 
The river Jordan. 

events in the life of Christ can you mention that occurred 
at some of the places marked on the map ? (Fig. 258). 

At that time, as we learn from the Bible, the region was 
highly developed. Wheat was raised upon the uplands, 
and olives, figs, and grapes in the valleys, while herds of 
sheep roamed over the plateaus and mountains. Recall 
events from the Bible that indicate these occupations. 
Palestine lay on the great caravan route which, leading 
from Egypt to the distant East, ran northward as far as 
Damascus (Fig. 241) in order to avoid the Syrian desert. 



HOLY LAND. 

Scale of Miles. 



Railroads - Highways =» 
Dry River Bed 

Part of Jordan Valley below 
Sta Level shown in purple. 




Longitude East 35 from G 



Fig. 258. 



THE HOLY LAND 



371 



Throngs of people, therefore, passed this way. Jerusalem 
(Fig. 258), the capital, was a great city, situated upon 
a lofty elevation that made it an important stronghold. 

The city is now visited by many Christians, and also by 
Mohammedan pilgrims who believe that Mohammed ascended 




Fig. 260. 
Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee. 



to heaven from there. Very little of importance is to be seen, 
for much of the country, once "flowing with milk and honey/' 
is in ruins. Even the usual mode of travel is by mule or 
camel, as in olden times, although a short railway climbs the 
mountains from the sea-coast, at Joppa, to Jerusalem, and 
another follows the old caravan route through Nazareth, past 
the Sea of Galilee to Damascus. Trace these two lines. Re- 
cently a steamboat has been placed on the Dead Sea for the 
use of tourists. . 



372 



ASIA 




Fig. 261. 
A part of Bethlehem. 



Mesopotamia. — This region, including the fertile val- 
leys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, has suffered the 
same fate as the rest of Turkey in Asia. Formerly a 

country of great 
resources, 
crossed by a 
network of irri- 
gation canals, 
" a garden of 
the Lord," it has 
been devastated 
by the Arabs 
and Turks until 
it is now almost 
a waste. Baby- 
lon and Nineveh, once the seats of a wonderful civilization, 
are now marked only by mounds of ruins. From these 
ruins records are at present being unearthed which prom- 
ise to throw much light upon ancient history. 

There is still some agriculture by irrigation ; but, now that 
the rivers are no longer prevented from overflowing, the fertile 
plains are for the most part untilled. The sites of the gardens 
of old are at present either barren desert or fever-breeding 
swamp ; and the nomad has replaced the farmer. 

Under such conditions there can be little commerce, though 
the Tigris is navigable with steamboats as far up as Bagdad. 
This city, situated on the caravan route to the east, was of 
much importance in ancient times. There is still some trade 
between Europe and India along this route. 

Arabia. — This peninsula is a plateau several thousand 
feet in elevation, with a fringe of mountains (Fig. 263), 
most prominent in the south and west. What waters 



ARABIA 



373 



border Arabia ? Since the coast line is wonderfully regu- 
lar, there are few harbors and therefore few coastal cities. 
Nevertheless, the enclosed seas favored the early develop- 
ment of navigation here as in the Mediterranean. There- 
fore in very early times Arabian ships carried on commerce 
with Africa, India, and even with eastern Asia. 

The climate is hot along the coast, but cool on the 
plateau and among the mountains. A great part of the 




Fig. 262. 
A view in Jerusalem. 

interior is desert, and almost everywhere the rainfall is 
light. Why? (p. 359). What about large rivers ? Coffee 
is raised in the southwest, near Mocha ; the date palm 
flourishes in many places ; and fruits and vegetables are 
produced in many of the valleys. Myrrh and frankin- 
cense, mentioned in the Bible, are obtained from the gums 
of shrubs that grow on the arid slopes of southern Arabia. 
In so unfavorable a climate the population is necessarily 
sparse and largely nomadic. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, 



374 



ASIA 



donkeys, and dromedaries are raised in large numbers, the 
three last being celebrated for their excellent qualities. 

Most of the Arabian peninsula is independent, though with- 
out a well-organized government. Turkey controls the west 
coast and the Persian Gulf coast as far as Oman. Oman, 
whose capital is the seaport of Maskat, was formerly an im- 
portant kingdom ; it still has extensive pearl fisheries. 

The British 
have a foothold 
on the southwest- 
ern coast at Aden, 
one of their most 
important coaling 
stations. The city 
of Aden, whose- 
excellent harbor 
is well fortified, 
is in a great crater 
surrounded by 
barren hills (Fig. 
264). It is as large 
as Sacramento, Cal., yet there is not enough rainfall to supply 
the necessary drinking water, although great reservoirs are 
built to store it. An additional supply is obtained by condens- 
ing the steam made from boiling sea water. 

Mecca, a Turkish city about fifty miles from the sea, is 
sacred to all Mohammedans. It was here that Mohammed 
was born, and every Mohammedan is supposed to make a 
pilgrimage to it at least once during his lifetime. Most of 
these pilgrims come by sea, and every year the city, as well 
as the roads leading to it, are crowded with them. 

Persia. — Like Arabia, Persia is an elevated table-land 
with large tracts of desert and salt steppes of little or no 
use to man. The arid climate prevents the formation of 
large rivers ; but the rains and snows of the parallel 










Fig. 263. 
A view among the Arabian mountains. 



PERSIA 



375 



mountain ranges permit some irrigation in the broad 
valleys. There is so little rainfall, however, and evapora- 
tion is so rapid during the hot, dry summer, that water 
for irrigation is often led from the mountains in under- 
ground tunnels. Why are tunnels preferable to ditches ? 




Fig. 264. 
A view of a part of Aden from the city water tanks. 



The main farm products are tobacco, wheat, barley, 
cotton, and opium. Much silk is also produced, and roses 
are cultivated for the manufacture of attar of roses. The 
principal agricultural portion is near the Caspian Sea, 
where there is sufficient rainfall for crops and also for 
extensive forests on the mountain slopes. Among the 



376 



ASIA 



mineral deposits is the precious stone turquoise ; but there 
is little mining. Along the coast of both Arabia and 
Persia precious pearls and pearl shells are found. 

Nearly two million Persians belong to nomadic tribes (Figs. 
265 and 266) which roam about the desert, dwelling in tents, 
and herding goats, sheep, and other animals. There is no 
extensive manufacturing, but the Persians, like the Turks, do 
some very beautiful hand weaving, as, for example, shawls and 
rugs. Their carving and inlaid metal and wood work are also 
wonderfully artistic. 




Fig. 265. 
A drove of camels in Persia. 

The government of Persia resembles that of Turkey and 
is therefore very bad. The ruler, or Shah, an absolute 
monarch, controls the lives and property of his subjects, 
who are mostly Mohammedans. Teheran, the capital, 
has some beautiful mosques, though the dwelling-houses 
are made of sun-dried bricks and face narrow, filthy streets 
(Fig. 267). 

Afghanistan. — This country, " one of the waste places of 
the world," is a region of sand, bare rocks, and snow-capped 



AFGHANISTAN 



377 



mountains. Only in the valleys is the soil made to yield a har- 
vest ; and even there the cold, blustering winters and the dry, 
scorching summers make one of the worst of climates. Under 
such unfavorable 
conditions there has 
developed a people 
noted for hardiness, 
stubbornness, brav- 
ery, and cruelty. 

Little is known 
about Afghanistan. 
Entrance to the 
country across the 
lofty mountain 
passes and desert 
sands is exceedingly 
difficult ; and the 
Afghans have a ha- 
tred for all Chris- 
tians, especially for 
the British, whom 
they have fought 
fiercely. Indeed, it 
has been said that 
the boundary be- 
tween India and 
Afghanistan should 
be " drawn in crim- 
son," because of the blood spilt there. Since Great Britain has 
pushed her Indian frontier northward, while Kussia has en- 
croached on the opposite side of Afghanistan, this country is 
often called the " buffer state " between these two rival 
powers. 

As in other Asiatic countries so far studied, the government 
is very bad. The ruler, the merciless Amir, holds his author- 
ity by means of the. terror which he inspires. His seat of 
government is at Kabul, nestled among lofty mountains. 




Fig. 266. 
A Persian nomad girl. 



378 



ASIA 



Russia in Asia. — This vast section of the Russian 
Empire includes about one-eighth of the land surface of 
the globe. There are several divisions, such as Turkes- 
tan and the dependencies of Bokhara and Khiva ; but by 
far the largest is Siberia, which is a million square miles 
larger than Europe, and even larger than the United 
States, Mexico, and Central America combined. Yet it 
has less than one-twelfth as many inhabitants as the 
United States alone. 




Fig. 267. 
A wedding procession passing through a street in Teheran. 

The climatic belts of Russia in Asia are merely a con- 
tinuation of the belts in European Russia (p. 266). In 
the north of Siberia are the tundras, with a scattered 
people who resemble the Eskimos (Fig. 268) of North 
America and make a bare living by the help of the rein- 
deer (Fig. 48). South of the tundras are the forests 
(p. 359), containing many valuable fur-bearing animals, 
such as the sable, ermine, and fox, and peopled mainly by 



RUSSIA IN ASIA 



379 



hunters and lumbermen. There are some farms in the 

clearings ; and when the forests are removed this should 

become a great agricultural region. Still farther south 

are the broad Kirghiz steppes 

(p. 359), watered enough for 

farming in the north, but 

more and more arid toward 

the south in Turkestan and 

Bokhara. 




Fig. 268. 

A Yakout woman from the cold tun- 
dra reaion of Siberia. 



While there are some tracts 
of salt-covered plains and sandy 
desert where men do not live, 
most of the steppe country is 
adapted to herding. Upon these 
steppes, grass and flowers ap- 
pear in spring when the snow 
melts ; but the drought soon 
comes, and the plants wither. 
Then, as in western United 
States, the country looks like a 

desert, though sheep, cattle, goats, horses, and camels find 
much nourishment in the dried grass, which is a kind of 
natural hay. 

Siberia has attained a reputation in the past, mainly as 
a source of minerals, and as a place of exile for Russians 
whom the government wishes to dispose of for political 
or other reasons. Gold has been found in a number of 
places, as in the Urals and near Lake Baikal, the largest 
fresh-water lake on the continent. But while there is 
much mineral wealth in Siberia, there has been little 
mining, excepting in the western part near Russia. 

A new era seems about to open for this vast empire, for the 
Russian government is now constructing extensive railways 



380 



ASIA 



which will open up the country for development. One system 
extends eastward from the Caspian Sea to Turkestan (Fig. 241), 
while another and longer one reaches from Russia in Europe 
to the Pacific Ocean. Trace it on Figure 241. Hitherto trans- 
portation across the vast plains, arid steppes, and rugged east- 
ern mountains has been difficult in the extreme. While the 
large rivers are very useful in summer, their importance for 
commerce is greatly lessened because some of them lead into 
salt lakes without outlet, while others enter the frozen Arctic 
and are themselves frozen over during a large part of the year. 




Fig. 269. 
A village in Siberia. 

Heretofore the products of Siberia could not easily be 
exported ; nor could machinery and other manufactured arti- 
cles be brought in without the greatest difficulty. But by the 
building of railways we may expect a rapid development of 
Siberia, whose resources are far greater than the sparseness of 
the population would indicate. Indeed, since the longer rail- 
way was begun there has been a rapid increase in population 
and exports, especially of corn. 

There are some important cities in Russia in Asia. 
The largest in the southwest is Tashkend, which is about 
the size of Indianapolis. Tiflis, between the Black and 
Caspian seas, is really in Asia, though the Russian gov- 



BUS SI A IN ASIA 



381 



eminent classes this region with its European provinces. 
It is about the size of Tashkend. There are a number of 
other cities with a population of from fifty to a hundred 
thousand. In Siberia there are no large cities, though 
several along the railway, including Irkutsk and Vladi- 
vostok, are now growing rapidly. 











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Fig. 270. 
The valley of Cashmere among the mountains of northern India. 

India. — This densely populated peninsula, with its 
warm climate, offers a striking contrast to cold, sparsely 
populated (Fig. 253), and slightly developed Siberia. 

Physiography and Climate. — Lying largely in the 
torrid zone, the Indian peninsula has a hot climate. Its 
position in the trade-wind belt might lead us to expect 
much desert, especially on the lee or western side. 
But this coast really has a heavy rainfall because it is 



382 



ASIA 



reached by the summer monsoons (Fig. 33). In the 
winter, however, when the winds blow from the land, the 
climate is so dry that plants wither ; and in Baluchistan, 
which is not affected by the summer monsoons, there is 
true desert. Southern India and Ceylon, on the other 
hand, have a heavy rainfall at all seasons. Why ? 

India, which is in the form of a triangle, has a remark- 
ably regular coast and therefore few good harbors. Most 
of the peninsula is a plateau, rarely more than two thousand 
feet high and largely covered with lava flows like those of 
the Snake River Valley of western United States. 

North of the 
plateau is a 
broad lowland 
occupied by the 
B r a h m a p u tra, 
Ganges, and In- 
dus rivers, 
which, like the 
Po of Italy, have 
built the plains 
out of sediment 
brought from 
the mountains. 
Among the lofty 
mountains which lie to the north of the river plains, the 
highest are the Himalayas, in which there are scores 
of peaks each reaching an altitude of over four miles. 
Even the mountain passes are from seventeen to nineteen 
thousand feet above sea level, or much higher than Mt. 
Blanc in the Alps. 

Farming. — This mountain system has formed a north- 





Fig. 271. 
Natives of the Cashmere valley (Fig. 270). 



INDIA 



383 



ward barrier to British conquest, as in former days it 
served as a barrier to invasion from nomadic hordes which 
overran Asia Minor. With such protection the fertile 
plains and deltas of the three great rivers became the seat 
of early civilization. From the very earliest times the 
people have been engaged in farming, and at present fully 
three-fifths of the population follow that occupation. 

As there are 287,000,000 inhabitants in an area of about 
1,559,000 square miles, it will be seen that there is an average 
of 184 persons for every square mile ; and in parts of the coun- 
try there are 500 per square mile. The density of population 
may be better understood by 
remembering that there are 
only twenty persons per 
square mile in the United 
States. There are, in fact, 
almost as many people in 
India as in North America, 
South America, and Africa 
together. 

Millet, which grows on 
the dryer lands, and rice, 
which is raised on the 
river lowlands where the 
land can be flooded, are 
the staple foods of the na- 
tives. After the dense 
population is fed, however, 
little is left for export. 
Wheat, on the other hand, 
is raised for export, and 
India is a vast granary for Great Britain. Much cotton is 
also produced. Some of this is manufactured into coarse 




Fig. 272. 
A tea plant. 



384 



ASIA 



fabrics for use at home and for export to China and Africa ; 
but much is exported as raw cotton, for use in the cotton 
mills of Great Britain. Other agricultural products are 
tea, sugar cane, tobacco, opium obtained from a species of 
poppy, indigo of value as a dye, and jute grown upon the 
sandy river bars for the sake of its coarse, strong fibre. 




Fig. 273. 
A native village near Calcutta — notice the bamboo on the right. 

For the production of rice, and for other crops as well, 
irrigation is necessary in many places. Therefore this country, 
favored by large rivers fed by the rains, snows, and melting 
glaciers of the mountains, has some of the most extensive 
irrigation works in the world. 

Forests and Wild Animals. — There are valuable forests on 
the mountain slopes, where the trees, including pines, firs, and 
junipers, resemble those of Europe; and there are also mag- 
nolias and the beautiful deodar, a species of cedar. In the 
hotter portions are valuable medicinal plants and spices, such 
as pepper and cinnamon.. The teak, whose strong, durable 



INDIA 



385 



wood is of great value in building, and the mango, whose fruit 
is important as a food between harvests, are both common in 
many localities. Besides these, the bamboo and various palms 
are of great value. The bamboo is employed in hundreds of 
ways in making implements and building houses (Fig. 273) ; 
and the palms supply juices for drink, fibre for ropes and 
mats, and cocoanuts (Fig. 251) for food and oil. 

In parts of the Ganges Valley and elsewhere there axe jungles, 
or tracts of waste land densely covered with bamboos, canes, 
etc., and very 
difficult to pene- 
trate. From 
these wastes the 
lion has almost 
disappeared; but 
the elephant is 
still found, and 
there are various 
species of the 
monkey ; also the 
rhinoceros, buffa- 
lo, leopard, wild 
boar, wolf, and 
Bengal tiger (Fig. 
248). The tiger 
is much dreaded, 
for it not only 
preys upon cattle, 
but even attacks men. Among the Himalayas, goats, sheep, 
asses, and dogs still exist in a wild state. Crocodiles live in 
the rivers ; and venomous serpents are said to kill as many as 
twenty thousand persons each year. 

Domestic Animals. — Owing to their religion the Hindus, as 
the people of India are called, live mainly upon vegetable food. 
But many animals, such as the yak, elephant, camel, and buffalo, 
are raised for a variety of purposes (p. 362). Large numbers of 
sheep are kept for their wool, and humped cattle for their milk — 
2c 




Fig. 274. 
A bullock cart in Bombay. 



386 ASIA 

an important article of food — and also as draught-animals. 
Since fish are eaten, fishing is an important industry. 

Mining and Manufacturing . — In addition to the raw 
products of farms and forests there are valuable minerals, 
including salt, petroleum, coal, and iron. India has long 
been noted for hand-made goods of great beauty ; but 
with the exception of these there is little manufactur- 
ing. Of late, however, there has been a marked develop- 
ment of cotton manufacturing by machinery. 

It is even more unnatural that cotton should be shipped all 
the way to England for manufacture than that the cotton of 
our Southern States should be sent to England and New Eng- 
land. Therefore, as the South is learning to make cotton goods 
near the cotton fields, so we may expect that the people of 
India will in time develop an extensive cotton-manufacturing 
industry in their own country. 

Famines and Plagues. — Although these people are so ex- 
tensively engaged in agriculture, there are times when they do 
not raise enough food for their own use, and then terrible fam- 
ines result. These occur when rain fails ; and it may be that 
one section suffers while another has an abundance. With the 
building of railways the danger of famines decreases, for then 
different sections are brought more closely together. The first 
railway was begun in 1854, and there is now a network across 
the peninsula (Fig. 241). 

But even the railways do not entirely remove the danger ; 
and probably famines will not cease so long as such vast num- 
bers depend entirely upon the products of the soil. There is 
need that some of them adopt other forms of industry, as for 
example manufacturing, and thus secure the means of buying 
food from other less densely settled regions. An even greater 
need is the construction of still more extensive irrigation sys- 
tems, for there is rainfall enough in some seasons if the water 
could be stored in reservoirs for use when wanted. 



INDIA 



387 



India has also been visited by plagues which have destroyed 
tens of thousands of lives. With a population so dense, in a 
climate so hot, disease spreads with rapidity and with terrible 
effect, particularly among people who are not properly nourished 
and whose surroundings are not always the cleanest. 

People. — India was originally inhabited by a swarthy 
race, which was gradually replaced by white people, or 
Aryans, from the north, who now make up the bulk of the 
population. Although protected by the sea and by the 
mountains of the 
north, a break in 
the mountain 
barrier in the 
northwest has 
permitted attack 
from that direc- 
tion. But the 
various invasions 
from that quarter FlG - 27u 

have never com- ^ tom ^ anc * mos i u e in India, 

pletely devastated the country, as was done in Asia 
Minor. One of these invasions was by the Mongols, who 
introduced Mohammedanism into northern India. The 
capital of their empire was Delhi, and it is said that the 
present Delhi is built upon the ruins of ten older cities. 

Religion. — India is the home of Brahmanism, which is pro- 
fessed by three-fourths of the people, while about one-fifth are 
Mohammedans. There are only about seven million Buddhists 
and two million Christians. Brahmanism, as already stated 
(p. 93), teaches the belief in caste, which is quite different 
from our belief in the equality of man with man, and is a great 
drawback to the development of the people. How ? Although 
grouped under the general term of Brahmanism, these people 




388 



ASIA 



have a great variety of religious beliefs and customs, as might 
be expected in a country made up of many tribes speaking dif- 
ferent languages ; but throughout India there are numerous 
general customs based upon the rule of the priests or Brahmans. 
The people have many religious superstitions. For example 
the Ganges, doubtless because of its great value for irrigating 

and fertilizing the 
soil, is considered 
a sacred river (Fig. 
279) ; and bathing 
in its waters is 
supposed to wash 
away disease, 
though, since the 
waters are also 
used for drinking, 
this custom is no 
doubt responsible 
for the spread of 
much disease. 
The conscientious 
Hindu makes at 
least one pilgrim- 
age to the holy river 
as a means of gain- 
ing divine favor 
and forgiveness. 




Crovernment. — 
Over three hun- 
dred years ago a 
company of Lon- 
don merchants 
obtained a foot- 
hold in India for trading purposes. The peninsula was 
then divided among many native rulers, and at various 



Fig. 276. 

The Great Pagoda in India — a sacred temple. 



INDIA 



389 



times the British government was called upon to settle 
disputes between them. Partly in this way, and partly 
through the necessity of intervening for the protection 
of British subjects engaged in the Indian trade, Great 
Britain gradually gained control of the peninsula. India 
was formally transferred to Great Britain in 1858, and in 
1877 the Indian Empire was established as a part of the 




Fig. 277. 
Elephants at work in a lumber yard in Burma. 



British Empire. The king of the British Isles is also 
styled Emperor of India. 

By their protection and wise direction, the British are able 
to maintain their hold upon this vast country, whose popula- 
tion is more than seven times that of the British Isles. Through- 
out India there is an average of but one Britisher to every 
three thousand natives, and by far the greater number of gov- 
ernment officers are Hindus. One of the members of the 



390 ASIA 

British ministry is Secretary of State for India ; and, as in the 
case of Canada, a governor-general, called the Viceroy, is sent 
from Great Britain as chief executive officer. The British 
have not attempted to overturn the numerous native states ; 
nor have they interfered seriously with the firmly established 
customs of the people. They have endeavored to guide and 
direct the people rather than to control them absolutely. 

Baluchistan and Burma. — The Indian Empire is not con- 
fined to the Indian peninsula. It includes also the desert 
country of Baluchistan to the west and fertile Burma to 
the east. In the latter country there are great numbers 
of Mongolians, or people of the yellow race. Vast quanti- 
ties of rice are raised, and there are other valuable products, 
as rubies, sapphires, and tropical woods. In Burma the 
elephant is used for moving logs (Fig. 277), drawing 
ploughs, and carrying passengers. Rangoon, the seaport, 
is noted for its export of rice ; but Mandalay, farther 
up the Irawadi River, is the largest city in Burma. 

Base of Himalayas. — Between Burma and the penin- 
sula of India, at the base of the Himalaya Mountains, is 
the region which has the heaviest rainfall in the world. 
Much tea is raised on the hills of that section (Figs. 272 
and 278) ; for tea requires a hot climate, an abundance 
of rain, and sufficient slope to prevent the water from 
standing about the roots of the plant. 

The tea plant, which is three or four feet high, has bright 
green leaves resembling those of a rose bush. The leaves are 
picked several times a year, often by boys and girls. After 
they are picked they are dried in the sun and later in buildings, 
in order to remove all moisture before packing. 

Other Countries. — Just north of this tea district, among the 
Himalayas, are Nepal and Bhutan, which, though small, retain 
their independence because so protected by the mountains. 



INDIA 



391 



At one time Portugal and France had important colonies in 
India; but they now control only very small sections, too small 
to be shown on our map. 

Principal Cities. — So many Hindus are engaged in 
farming that only about five per cent of them dwell in 











' 



g. ■. , . ; 



iML±* 




Fig. 278. 
Picking: tea in India. 



large towns. Nevertheless, there are seventy-five cities 
with a population of over fifty thousand, while two, 
Calcutta and Bombay, have over eight hundred thousand. 
Calcutta, the largest city, is a seaport on the Ganges 
delta and the natural outlet of the fertile Ganges Valley; 
but it has a poor harbor on a river whose volume is vari- 
able. It has some manufacturing, — being near coal 



392 



ASIA 



fields, — but it is chief!)' important as a commercial centre 
and as the residence of the Viceroy. 

Farther up the Ganges are the smaller cities, Lucknow and 
Benares. The latter, the " holy city of the Hindus," is on 
that part of the Ganges which is deemed most holy. At this 
point temples (Fig. 279) line the banks of the river for miles, 
and a steady stream of pilgrims pours in and out of the city. 




Fig. 279. 

Temples along the Ganges at Benares. 

While there are several cities on the Ganges, there are none 
on the Indus large enough to find a place on our map. This 
is not because the Indus is useless for irrigation, but because 
of shallow waters and sand bars which interfere with naviga- 
tion. These are due to the fact that the river, though well 
supplied with water from the mountains, loses much of it by 
evaporation in crossing the arid plains. Thus it is obliged to 
deposit some of its sediment as sand bars in its channel. 



CEYLON 



393 



Bombay, next in size to Calcutta and the nearest port 
to England, is a great business centre. It is, moreover, 
the only Indian 
city with a really 
good harbor. 
Madras, the 
third largest city, 
is situated at a 
point where there 
is only an open 
roadstead pro- 
tected by a break- 
water. 

Ceylon. — With a 
fertile soil, abun- 
dant rainfall, and 
high though equa- 
ble temperature, 
Ceylon is a beauti- 
ful tropical garden, 
and was considered 
by the Arabs to be 
the Garden of 
Eden. A chain of islands and coral reefs which nearly con- 
nect Ceylon with the mainland is therefore called "Adam's 
Bridge." Over this it is proposed to extend a railway from 
the mainland. Among the products of Ceylon are cocoanuts, 
rice, fruit, coffee, and tea. The island is the third most im- 
portant tea-producing section in the world. Other products 
are sapphires and rubies from the stream gravels, and beauti- 
ful pearls and mother of pearl obtained from shellfish which 
live among the coral reefs. 

Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. — This peninsula 
consists of a series of mountain chains, spreading fan- 




Fig. 280. 
A group of kings in Ceylon. 



394 



ASIA 



shaped southward, with numerous long, narrow valleys 
between, which broaden toward the south and terminate 
in fertile, populous delta plains at the river mouths. In 
addition to Burma, a part of the Indian Empire, there are 
three divisions of this peninsula: (1) Siam, (2) French 
Indo- China, and (3) the British Straits Settlements. 

Siam. — In this tropical country most of the inhabitants, 
who are either Chinese or Malays, live along the rivers 

and irrigation 
canals, where 
they are largely 
engaged in the 
production of 
rice. Millet, 
which is raised 
in the drier 
places, competes 
with rice in im- 
portance as a 
food. Among 
the mineral pro- 
ducts are rubies, 
sapphires, gold, and tin. The forests yield tropical woods, 
especially teak wood, for use at home and for export. 

Siam is a monarchy, the king being assisted by a council of 
ministers and a legislative body of noblemen. The poorer 
classes are still kept in a kind of serfdom by the local gov- 
ernors ; that is, they may be compelled to labor for the gov- 
ernors for two or three months each year. 

Bangkok, the capital and largest city, is situated on the 
banks of a muddy river up which vessels of small draught are 
able to pass to the city. Most of the inhabitants live either 
in poor houses on narrow, ill-kept streets, or else in boats and 




Fig. 281. 
A Buddhist temple at Bangkok. 



1ND0-CHINA 



395 



floating houses on the river ; but the king has magnificent 
palaces decorated with carved marble and frescoed with gold. 
Buddhism is the religion of the country ; and in Bangkok alone 
there are said to be ten thousand Buddhist priests whose 
temples (Fig. 281), decorated with gold, silver, and jewels, are 
wonderfully gorgeous. Next to the king the white elephant is 
held in highest reverence, and Siam is often called ''the Land 
of the White Elephant." 

French Indo-China. — This dependency of France resembles 
Siam in climate and 
people. Its forest- 
covered hills yield 
valuable teak and 
iron wood, and in 
its valleys are ex- 
tensive fields of 
rice and millet. 
Rice culture is here 
favored by the 
warm, damp cli- 
mate and by the 
broad, easily 
flooded deltas and 
flood plains of the F IG ogo. 

Mekong and other A Malay house in the Straits Settlements, 

rivers. Silk, cot- 
ton, tea, and spices are other products, and there are also 
extensive coal beds. Some coal is exported. 

Straits Settlements. — This is the name given to the British 
possessions on the southern end of the Malay peninsula. In 
that hot, damp country, so near the equator, such tropical 
products as rice, cocoanuts, gutta-percha, and spices are 
obtained. Extensive deposits of tin are found in this region, 
which supplies about half the tin used in the world. The 
mining is done crudely by Chinese, while the native Malays 
are mainly engaged in farming and fishing. 

The only city of importance is Singapore, situated almost on 




396 



ASIA 



the equator, on a small island barely separated from the southern 
tip of the Mala}^ peninsula. Being a free port, or a port freely 
open to the commerce of all nations, and being situated on a 
narrow strait through which many ships of various nations 
are passing, Singapore is an extremely busy city. 

Chinese Empire. Area and Population. — This empire, 
which is nearly as large as Siberia, has more inhabitants 
than any other nation in the world. It includes nearly 
half the population of Asia ; that is, about the same 

number as are 
found in North 
America, South 
America, Africa, 
Australia, the 
British Isles, and 
G e r m a n y t o- 
g e t h e r. O r, 
otherwise ex- 
pressed, it has 
fully twenty-five 
FlG - 283 - million more 

A scene in the arid mountainous part of China, where npnn l P tban livp 
camels are used. r l 

in all of Europe. 
The hordes of Chinese who live on the river flood plains 
and deltas of the south and east make this the most densely 
settled larsre area on the globe. 

^Nevertheless, there are outlying provinces of great extent, 
such as Mongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet, where the population 
is very sparse (Fig. 253). This is because of the ragged 
mountains (Fig. 245) and the vast desert plateaus where the 
dryness is unfavorable to all industries save herding. There 
are large sections, as in the great Desert of Gobi, where even 
this industry is impossible. Strangers find it difficult to enter 




CHINA 397 

some of these remote districts ; and the holy city of Lassa in 
Tibet has been visited, it is said, by only three Europeans. 
The inhabitants wish to save their city and its sacred temples 
from intrusion, and they capture and often torture those whose 
curiosity leads them there. Over these wild regions the Chi- 
nese government is able to exert only a very slight authority. 

Climate. — Most of the densely settled part of China 
has a temperate climate with an abundance of rain during 
the summer monsoon. In the north, for example near 
Peking, which is in about the same latitude as Philadel- 
phia, the summers are warm and the winters cold ; but 
farther south, as at Canton, just south of the Tropic of 
Cancer, the climate is tropical, and there is rain through- 
out the year. Toward the interior the climate grows 
steadily drier, and, with increasing elevation, colder also. 

In the China Sea, as in other parts of southern Asia, fierce 
typhoons are encountered in the late summer and early au- 
tumn. They resemble the hurricanes which develop in the 
West Indies and often cause great damage along their path, 
which frequently skirts our southern coast, and then extends 
northeastward into the Atlantic. The typhoons of Asia, de- 
veloping in the East Indies, also cause much destruction of life 
and property, especially on the low delta plains, over which 
great sea waves are driven by the typhoon winds. 

The rains and snows of the Chinese mountains supply 
water for a number of large rivers. The two most im- 
portant are the Hoang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang (Fig. 
244), whose floods spread out over the broad deltas and 
flood plains, thus depositing sediment and adding fertility 
to the soil. The greatest rise, which in the Yangtse-kiang 
reaches a height of fully forty feet, occurs during the 
summer rains, between July and October. 



398 



ASIA 



It is with great difficulty that the Hoang-ho is controlled, 
and in the last twenty -five hundred years its lower course has 
changed eleven different times. In some cases this has caused 
a change of three hundred miles in the position of the river 
mouth. A single flood destroyed a million people. Because 

of the repeated destruction of 
life and property, the Hoang- 
ho has been called " China's 
Sorrow." 

People and Civilization. 
— The Chinese Empire is 
inhabited by people of 
varied origin, with differ- 
ent customs, religions, and 
languages. The Mongoli- 
ans, who form the basis of 
the population, apparently 
came from western Asia, 
bringing with them the 
knowledge of irrigation. 
Although China is partially 
protected on the west by 
mountain ranges and desert, 
the constant danger of invasion by nomads led, as early 
as 212 B.C., to the construction of the Great Wall (Fig. 
241) along the northern frontier. 

This wall, twelve hundred miles long in a straight line, and 
fifteen hundred miles with all of its windings, passes up and 
down hill (Fig. 285) and even over a mountain peak. It is 
twenty-five feet wide and thirty feet high, and at short dis- 
tances apart are strong watch-towers rising still higher. This 
wonderful structure, which required armies of men to build, 
was so well made that it is still perfect in many places. 




Fig. 284. 
A Chinese mandarin in his official dress. 



CHINA 



399 



Long before Europeans had emerged from the state of 
barbarism, the Chinese had developed a remarkable civili- 
zation. The art of printing, the manufacture of gun- 
powder, the production of silk and silk goods, the baking 




Fig. 285. 
A part of the Great Wall of China. 



of porcelain or china ware, and other important arts were 
known to them long before Europeans learned them. 

But in spite of their early start, the Chinese have been 
outstripped by Europeans (p. 364). Their peculiar cus- 
toms in part account for their failure to advance farther. 
They are followers of Confucius, and his doctrine is 
everywhere taught. In fact, no one can be appointed a 



400 



ASIA 



government official who has not passed an examination in 
the Chinese classics, including the doctrine of Confucius. 

One of their doctrines is ancestor worship, which leads them 
to regard new customs as bad. This tends to check develop- 
ment, and is one of the reasons why they object to adopting 
European and American civilization. The strength of their 




Fig. 286. 
A scene in a public court at Shanghai. 



ancestor worship is indicated by the fact that disobedience to 
parents is regarded in China as one of the worst of sins, for 
which children may be whipped to death. By law the punish- 
ment for striking a parent is death. 

The conservatism of the Chinese is shown by their objection 
to the introduction of labor-saving machinery, and it is also 
shown by their means of transportation. Much of the traffic is 



CHINA 



401 




Fig. 287. 
A typical Chinese village and canal. 



carried on by means of canals (Fig. 287), of which the largest 
is the Grand Canal (Fig. 241), built more than twelve hundred 
years ago. The 
rivers are also 
used (Fig. 244), 
even where trans- 
portation on them 
seems almost im- 
possible ; yet, in- 
stead of steam, 
they make use of 
poles, oars, and 
sails. Good roads 
are rare, and one 
of the principal 
vehicles is the 
wheelbarrow, even 
for carrying trav- 
ellers. There are, 

for example, two thousand passenger wheelbarrows in Shang- 
hai. Pack animals and men are used for carrying loads, and 
the more prosperous persons are carried in chairs by their 
servants. It is evident that a man's time in China is not 
valued very highly. 

Doubtless one of the main reasons for the Chinese objection 
to foreigners and their methods is the fear that the introduc- 
tion of steam and machinery will throw people out of employ- 
ment. The strength of this fear is illustrated by the fact that 
when, finally, in 1876, the Chinese government agreed to allow 
the building of a railway, so much opposition was raised that 
it was bought up and destroyed. Since then, however, one or 
two short lines have been permitted. Unjust treatment on 
the part of European nations, which have seized and held 
Chinese territory, is another important cause for objection to 
foreigners. It was a combination of these causes that led to 
the uprising of 1900, in which an attempt was made to kill all 
foreigners in China. 
2d 



402 



ASIA 



Natural Resources. — Though many Chinese are engaged 
in fishing, both in the rivers and the ocean, they are in 
a the main an agricultural 

people. Their farming 
methods are very crude ; 
yet they are so careful 
and industrious, and 
labor is of so little 
value, that they till 
every bit of land possi- 
ble. For example, water 
for irrigation, instead of 
being distributed only 
over moderate slopes, as 
in the United States, is 
often taken to the very 
tops of hills. It is first 
raised from the river by 
FlG - 288, means of wheels, turned 

A Chinese pagoda or temple. either by men Qr bj 

buffaloes, and then pumped upward from one terrace to 
the next until the whole hillside has been watered. 

The principal food of the Chinese is rice ; but their 
main products for export are tea and silk. Tea is raised 
on the damp hill slopes of the south, where the condi- 
tions resemble those in India (p. 390). Fully forty thou- 
sand men and women are employed in carrying tea into 
Fuchau alone. They receive but ten cents a day for 
their labor. In the warm south, great quantities of silk 
are obtained, as in France, from the cocoon of the silk- 
worm caterpillar. Some of the caterpillars feed on forest 
trees, others are carefully, fed on the mulberry leaf. 




CHINA 403 

As in other countries of southern Asia, the bamboo is one of 
the most valuable products. The seeds are ground up for food, 
and in spring the tender roots and stalks are eaten. The roofs 
and walls of houses, as well as nearly all articles of furniture, 
are made of bamboo wood. It is, moreover, woven into mats, 
baskets, and hats, while paper is made from its pulp. 

The Chinese are an artistic people, and they make some 
very beautiful china ware and silk fabrics ; but they still do 
the work by hand, as has been the custom for thousands of 
years. There is almost no other kind of manufacturing, nor is 
there much development of the wonderful mineral resources. 
It is said that China contains the largest coal fields in the 
world, in which both bituminous and anthracite coal occur ; 
and there are also deposits of gold, silver, lead, and iron ore. 

Sometime, when China awakens from her long sleep, there 
will be a wonderful advance of this vast empire of varied 
resources and really able people. Many Chinamen are well 
educated, and as a race they are noted for their politeness, 
honesty, and thrift. These qualities are well recognized in 
the East Indies and southeastern Asia, where so many of the 
tradesmen are Chinese. They need merely to appreciate the 
advantages of modern civilization; and it would be a help to 
this end if the people of Europe and America had a better 
understanding of the excellent qualities of the Chinese. 

Government. — The Chinese government is peculiar. 
The Emperor, who has a right to nominate his own suc- 
cessor, is known as the "Son of Heaven." He has under 
him a Viceroy for each province, who must collect money 
for the imperial government, but is partly independent of 
the Emperor. The present Emperor is not a Chinaman 
but belongs to the Manchu division of the yellow race, 
which invaded and conquered China in 1644. It was then 
that the Manchu custom of wearing a long queue, or 
" pigtail," was introduced into China, 



404 



ASIA 



Principal Cities. — There are many cities in China, all 
densely crowded. The poorer classes live huddled to- 
gether, while the wealthier classes and officials dwell in 
comfort and luxury. The largest city is Canton, which 
has more inhabitants than Chicago. It is situated on a 
densely populated delta and is a port of outlet for pro- 
ductive southern China, being especially noted for its silk. 
It is said that three hundred thousand people, or one- 




Fig. 289. 
The harbor of Hongkong. 

eighth of the inhabitants, live in boats moored in the 
river. 

Hongkong (Fig. 289), an island which commands the 
approach to Canton, belongs to the British. To Hongkong 
many of the products of China are sent for export to 
Europe and America. It is therefore a very busy place. 
Hankau and Wuchang, on opposite sides of the 
Yangtse-kiang River, are important river ports for tea. 
As in the case of most Chinese cities, the number of in- 
habitants is uncertain. For example, by some estimates 



KOREA 405 

Hankau has a population of a million and a half, by 
others, only eight hundred thousand. 

The treaty port 1 of Shanghai is another large city ; 
but Tientsin, the port nearest Peking, and the northern 
terminus of the Grand Canal, is still larger, having a 
population of about a million. It was from this point that 
the allied forces started, in 1900, to relieve the foreigners 
who were besieged in Peking by the Chinese Boxers. 

Peking, the capital of China, is situated on a broad, 
sandy plain. It has been the capital of a kingdom for three 
thousand years and of the Chinese Empire for over eight 
centuries. This city, like others in China, is surrounded 
by a high wall with gates that are closed at night, as of 
old in Europe. It is a rectangular city, with one portion 
reserved for the gardens and palaces of the imperial gov- 
ernment. This part is known as the " Forbidden City," 
because the Chinese government refused to permit for- 
eigners to enter it. 

Korea. — This mountainous peninsula has a temperate cli- 
mate and is adapted to the production of such crops as grains 
in the north, and rice, tobacco, and cotton in the south. In 
many respects the inhabitants resemble the Chinese ; in fact, 
Korea was a dependency of China until freed by the war 
between China and Japan in 1894. While there are great 
natural resources, including both coal and iron, there has been 
little advance. The government is an absolute monarchy; 
the people have few rights ; and, until 1882, the country was 
closed to foreigners. But now foreign influence is begin- 
ning to be felt in this " Hermit Kingdom," whose capital is 
Seoul. 

Japan. — This island empire extends from Formosa, 

1 Foreigners are not allowed to trade in all Chinese cities, and those 
ports where this privilege is allowed by treaty are called " Treaty Ports." 



406 



ASIA 




Fig. 290. 
The gate at the entrance to Seoul in Korea. 



captured from the Chinese in 1894, to the Kurile Islands 
far to the north. How many degrees is that ? About 

h o w many 
miles ? The lo- 
cation of the 
islands with ref- 
erence to the 
mainland re- 
in i n d s us of 
the British 
Isles ; and, in 
fact, Japan's 
isolation from 
other countries 
has secured to 
her the same 
freedom from invasion as has long proved of such advan- 
tage to the British. 

Physiography and Climate. — Notwithstanding the great 
length of the empire, its narrow islands occupy an area but 
little greater than that of California. So much of this is 
mountainous that not more than one-sixth of the surface 
can be cultivated, and many of the lowlands are difficult to 
reach because of the rugged surface and the absence of navi- 
gable rivers. There are numerous volcanoes (Fig. 242) ; 
and, since the mountains are still growing (p. 355), many 
earthquakes. These are so frequent and violent that in 
building their houses the people must allow for their force. 
Nipon, the main island of Japan, has a warm temperate 
climate — due to the Japanese current (Fig. 38) — and an 
abundance of rain. Other islands near by have a similar 
climate ; but Formosa is partly within the tropics. 




JAPAN 407 

Under these conditions, in several respects so unfavor- 
able, a dense population has developed, equal to more than 
half the number in the 

United States. In many . ^fl^""'^' r 

ways the Japanese are the «. '■■■- -:,' : .^% r r 

most advanced people in e^H 

Asia. , jjjbs- 

People and Government. , u« 

— In early times Japan *' \ 

was invaded by Mongolians 
from the mainland, who ex- 
pelled the original inhab- 
itants to the more barren FlG - 2!)1 - 

A Japanese peasant family travelling, 
northern islands. J^rom 

these Mongolians are descended the present Japanese, a 
people noted for their smallness of stature and their won- 
derful artistic instinct. 

Centuries before the time of Christ they had developed 
a civilization resembling that of their kinsmen, the Chinese. 
Their fine taste led to the manufacture of many beautiful 
articles of silk, metal, glass, and wood. Like the Chinese, 
they for a long time did not care for modern civilization, 
and closed their ports to the outside world. In 1853, 
however, United States war-ships under Commodore 
Perry entered Yokohama and induced the Japanese to 
open their ports to our commerce. After this important 
step the country, in 1868, was freely opened to the 
world. 

One great drawback to the advance of Japan was the 
nature of the government, which resembled that of Europe 
in the Middle Ages. While the Mikado was nominally 
emperor, the real power was in the hands of noblemen 



408 



ASIA 




who, by the feudal system, had large numbers of peasants, 
not only to work for them, but to fight when necessary. 

After the coun- 
try was opened 
to foreigners the 
power of the 
noblemen was 
lessened, and 
the Mikado be- 
came the real 
emperor. At 
present he is 
aided by two 
legislative . bod- 
ies, one consist- 
ing mainly of 
noblemen, the 
other elected by qualified voters. There is also a Cabinet 
appointed by the Mikado, as the Cabinet of the United 
States is appointed by the President. 

Recent Advance. — Since these changes the Japanese 
have become noted for their willingness to learn the 
lessons of Western civilization, and their progress has 
been truly marvellous. New schools have been started, 
and education has been made compulsory. Americans and 
Europeans have been induced to go to Japan to teach, 
and Japanese students have been sent to Europe and 
America to study in the universities and to learn what 
they could of Western civilization. Thus, in a generation 
the Japanese have added to their own knowledge that of 
Europe and America ; and they have learned their lessons 
so well that, with their patience, skill, and intelligence, 



Fig. 292. 
A Japanese travelling-chair. 



JAPAN 



409 



they alone of all the nations in Asia have taken rank 
with the great nations of the world. 

The progress that has been made is suggested by the follow- 
ing facts : over seven hundred newspapers and periodicals are 
now published in Japan. While in 1872 there was only one 
short railway from Yokohama to Tokio, a distance of eighteen 
miles, there are now more than three thousand miles of rail- 




Fig. 293. 
A temple in Japan. 



way in the empire. There are many large manufactories of 
various kinds ; and, as in the British Isles, cotton and other 
raw products are even imported for manufacture. 

Everywhere there are signs of progress ; but many ancient 
customs are still preserved (Figs. 291 and 292), so that Japan 
is a peculiar mixture of ancient and modern. There are the 
Buddhist temples, and idols still worshipped (Figs. 254, 293, 
and 294) ; and the sedan chair is extensively used for travel- 
ling. Man power (Fig. 295) is much used still for carrying 



410 



ASIA 



passengers and merchandise, for there are but few domestic 
animals in Japan. It seems strange to us to see such customs 
within sound of the whistle of a woollen factory or railway- 
engine ; but to the Japanese the 
factories and railways are what 
seem strange, and they deserve 
the greatest credit for their 
wisdom in realizing the value 
of these modern inventions. 
What Japan has done China 
may also do if she will. 

Resources. — Among the 
mountains there are valuable 
deposits of gold, silver, cop- 
per, iron, and coal; and these 
are now well developed. The 
mountain sides are covered 
with forests of great value, 
including giant cedars, cam- 
phor laurels, and lacquer 
trees ; and wherever the soil 
is favorable there is agricul- 
ture. Among the products 
of the farm are wheat, sugar 
cane, and rice, the latter being 
the chief article of food, as 
among other Mongolians. As 
in China, both tea and silk are 
produced, and these form two of the main articles of 
export. Much of our tea comes from Japan. Besides 
these industries, fully two and a half millions of people are 
engaged in fishing. 

Principal Cities. — Tokio, a city about the size of 




Fig. 294. 
A Japanese Pagoda. 



JAPAN 



411 



Philadelphia, is the capital of Japan. Besides being the 
home of the Mikado, and therefore having many govern- 
ment buildings, 
it has numer- 
ous manufac- 
tories. Yoko- 
hama, at the 
entrance to To- 
kio Bay, was a 
mere fishing vil- 
lage when vis- 
ited by Perry ; 
but since the 
harbor of Tokio 
is unsuited for the large modern ships, Yokohama has 




Fig. 295. 
A jiurikisha, or " man-power-carriage. 




Fig. 29(3. 
A view of Yokohama and its harbor. 



412 ASIA 

grown rapidly and now has the largest foreign trade in 
Japan. 

Other important cities, having a population of several hun- 
dred thousand, are Osaka, noted for its cotton manufacturing ; 
Kioto, the former capital, and the centre of the tea district ; 
and Nagoya, a centre for porcelain manufacturing, for which 
Japan has long been noted. All these cities are connected by 
railway lines, which have been a great aid in the development 
of their industries. State how. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of Asia; also its 
position with reference to the zones and other continents. (2) Tell 
about its physiography, including mountains, rivers, and mineral 
wealth. (3) Describe the climate. (4) Tell about the plants and 
animals, showing the contrast between northern and southern Asia. 
(5) What about the use of plants and animals in Asia in ancient 
times? (6) In what sections were the beginnings of civilization 
probably made? Why there? (7) Give reasons why Europeans 
have so outdistanced the Asiatics. (8) Tell about the population 
of Asia and its distribution. (9) Tell about the religions of Asia. 
(10) Why is Turkey in Asia of special interest to us? (11) Describe 
its surface, climate, and industries. (12) Why, and from what peoples, 
has Asia. Minor suffered frequent invasions? (13) Tell about the 
Holy Land : its surface; climate; history; present condition. (14) 
Tell about Mesopotamia. (15) Describe the surface and climate of 
Arabia. (16) Tell about its government, products, and principal 
cities. (17) Give the main facts about Persia. (18) Do the same for 
Afghanistan. (19) Compare the area of Siberia with that of various 
countries of the world. (20) Compare the climatic belts of* Russia 
in Asia with those of Russia in Europe. (21) What about the future 
of Siberia ? (22) Tell about India : its climate and surface ; popula- 
tion ; agricultural products ; forests and jungles ; wild and domesti- 
cated animals ; minerals ; manufactures ; famines and plagues ; people 
and their religion. (23) How did the British gain control over India, 
and how is the control exercised? (24) Tell about Baluchistan and 
Burma. (25) For what are the countries at the base of the Himalayas 
important? (26) Locate and tell about the principal cities of India. 
(27) What can you tell about Ceylon ? (28) Give the principal facts 
about Siam. (29) Do the same for French Indo-China ; for Straits 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 413 

Settlements. (30) Tell about China : area ; number of inhabitants 
and their distribution ; climate and rivers ; people and their early 
civilization ; reasons for their recent lack of development, giving ex- 
amples; agricultural products; minerals and manufactures; govern- 
ment; principal cities. (31) What can you tell about Korea? 
(32) Tell about Japan: position; area; physiography and climate; 
population; people and government ; recent advance; resources; chief 
cities. 

Review and Comparison with North America. 1 — (1) How 

do North America and Asia differ in form, coast line, islands, moun- 
tains, direction of rivers, and deserts ? (2) What other differences 
between the two continents can you mention ? What resemblances ? 
(3) Is the Canadian Pacific railway north or south of the Si- 
berian railway? Which is the longer? (4) Is San Francisco north 
or south of Peking? (5) Name the three peninsulas of southern 
Asia ; of southern Europe. Which of the six is nearest the latitude 
of Florida? (6) Name the large rivers of Asia and of Canada that 
flow into the Arctic Ocean. On a globe estimate the distance between 
the mouths of the Mackenzie and Lena rivers. (7) How do the great 
rivers of China compare in length with the Mississippi ? With the 
Volga? (8) How do the interior lakes and seas of Asia compare in 
value for commerce with our Great Lakes ? (9) With what lake in 
North America may the Aral Sea be compared? (10) What ocean 
currents affect the climate of Asia? Of North America ? (11) Com- 
pare the climatic belts of Siberia with those of Canada. (12) Is 
western Asia more or less suited to agriculture and commerce than 
western North America? Why? (13) In what portions of North 
America and Asia is rice cultivated? (14) Answer the same question 
for cotton. (15) What important crops in Asia are not extensively 
produced in the United States ? (16) Name some of the leading im- 
ports from Asia to the United States. (17) What about mining in 
Asia compared with that in the United States? (18) Make the same 
comparison for manufacturing ; for railways. (19) What is the pre- 
vailing kind of government in each of the two continents ? (20) Com- 
pare the population of the five largest cities of Asia with the five 
largest in North America. (21) What are the advantages to the 
United States of its control of the Philippines ? The disadvantages ? 

1 Aid in answering some of these questions may be obtained in Section 
XXV. and Appendix II. 



414 ASIA 

Suggestions. — (1) What do you know about recent massacres of 
Armenian Christians by the Turks ? (2) Why, do you suppose, has 
Turkey not laid claim to all of Arabia? (3) Estimate the area of 
the Holy Land. (4) Make a sand or clay map of the Holy Land 
(Fig. 258). (5) Point out on the map (Fig. 258) some of the places 
often mentioned in the New Testament and describe some of the 
events that occurred there. (6) What Bible events have their scene 
in Mesopotamia? (7) Write a paper to show to what extent our 
present civilization is indebted to the Holy Land. (8) Find out some 
facts about the Crusades. (9) Find out the length of the railway 
across Siberia. (10) About how far is it by rail from Lisbon in Por- 
tugal to Port Arthur on the Pacific? (11) Read Kipling's Jungle 
Books. (12) Why should the Great AVall of China have less value 
now than formerly? (13) How is Peking poorly situated for the 
capital of so vast an empire? (14) Find out about our laws for the 
exclusion of the Chinese, and the reasons why they were passed. (15) 
Describe some of the events connected with the siege of the legations 
and the relief expeditions sent to Peking in 1900. (16) Find some 
facts about the destruction of Galveston by the hurricane in 1900. 
Look for an account of the destruction caused by a typhoon in south- 
eastern Asia — they are often found in the illustrated papers and 
newspapers in October-December. (17) What Asiatic countries have 
you seen represented among the immigrants to the United States? 
(18) Examine pictures of buildings in Asia (in this book or else- 
where), to note how different are their styles of architecture from our 
own. (19) Write a paper telling in what respects you would expect 
to find an Asiatic city different from one of our own. (20) By what 
water routes could you go from New York to Tientsin ? Would it be 
nearer to go by rail as far as either San Francisco or Seattle? (21) By 
what three all-water routes could you go from New York to Bombay? 
Which is the shortest? (22) Find some facts about Confucius, Mo- 
hammed, and Buddha. (23) Who was Omar Khayyam, and what did 
he write? (24) Find some facts about the conquest of parts of Asia 
by Alexander the Great. (25) Who first reached Tndia by water? 
(26) Who was Marco Polo? (27) Find some facts about missionary 
work in Asiatic countries. 




Fig. 297. 



XXII. AFRICA 

Map Questions (Fig. 297). — (1) Compare the size of Africa with 
that of the other continents. (2) Sketch the eastern hemisphere to 
show the position of Africa. (3) Sketch the outline of Africa, and 
locate the principal rivers and lakes. (4) What peculiarity do you 
notice about the location of the mountains? (5) What zones cross 
Africa? (6) What kind of climate (temperature and rainfall) would 
you expect to find (a) in the extreme north ; (b) in the extreme south ; 
(c) at the equator ; (d) near the tropics? (7) Find the desert country 
north and south of the equator. Explain its cause. (8) How does 
it happen that the Nile has water enough to flow so far through the 
desert? (9) In what sections are the most railways? What reasons 
can you suggest? (10) Where are the large cities? Compare their 
number with those in other continents. Why should there be this 
difference ? 

Physiography. — Africa, the second continent in size, 
resembles South America in outline. Its form is roughly 
that of a triangle, broad at the north and tapering toward 
the south. The coast line is remarkably regular, in strik- 
ing contrast with the coast of Europe, Asia, and North 
America, and resembling that of South America and 
Australia. What must be some of the consequences of 
such regularity ? What gulfs, seas, and large islands are 
found on the map of Africa ? 

Africa differs from all other continents in its mountain 
systems. It is mainly a plateau, but near the coast the 
plateau edges are broken and the rocks upturned, so that 
there is an almost complete mountain rim. Trace this 
rim (Fig. 298); from what part of the coast is it absent? 
In northern Africa the Atlas ranges reach an elevation of 
fourteen thousand feet ; but the loftiest mountains are in 

415 



416 



AFRICA 



the east central part. Among the latter is the volcanic 
cone of Kilimanjaro, the highest peak on the continent. 
Find this peak and trace the mountains from there north- 
ward. Notice the elevated land in Abyssinia. 




Fig. 298. 






PHYSIOGRAPHY 417 

Owing to the mountain rim the rivers of Africa are peculiar. 
For instance, the Niger, after rising among the highlands near 
the west coast, sweeps around in a great curve before entering 
the Atlantic. The Zambesi, in the south, also rises near the 
west coast but crosses the continent eastward to the Indian 
Ocean. Trace the courses of the Nile and the Kongo, the two 
largest rivers. 

In descending from the plateau each of these streams is 
interrupted by rapids and falls. Find the Victoria Falls of 
the Zambesi (Fig. 297) ; the cataracts of the Nile ; also 
Leopoldville on the Kongo, below which are some falls. 
Rapids also occur in the Niger. How will these great rivers 
compare, therefore, with the Mississippi or Amazon as routes 
for commerce ? How must these falls affect the development 
of Africa ? 

In one part of Africa there are several large lakes. Name 
the three largest. Into what rivers do they empty ? Notice 
that they are among the mountains ; their basins were not 
formed by glaciers, as were most lakes of North America, but 
by movements of the earth's crust. 

Climate. — The equator crosses so near the middle of 
Africa that only the northern and southern ends are in 
the temperate zones. Therefore the climate of most of 
the continent, like that of South America, is tropical. 
Since the altitude of so much of Africa is so nearly uni- 
form, the belts of climate extend nearly east and west. 
What is true in this respect in South America ? 

In equatorial Africa, that is for some distance both to 
the north and south of the equator, there is such a hot, 
rainy climate that, as in the Amazon Valley, the land is 
densely covered with a tropical forest (Fig. 299). This 
is especially well illustrated at the base of the plateau 
where the narrow strip of coast land is hot, reeking with 
moisture, and the seat of deadly malaria. These condi- 
2e 



418 



AFRICA 



tions have greatly interfered with exploration, for disease 

is apt to seize white men even while they are crossing the 

coastal strip. 

The interior, owing to its greater elevation, is somewhat 

cooler and less unheal thful ; but even there tropical heat and 

rain prevail in 
the equatorial 
belt. It is this 
heavy rainfall 
that supplies the 
Kongo and- Nile 
with their im- 
mense volumes 
of water. Both 
to the north and 
to the south of 
the rainy equa- 
torial region is 
the savanna belt 
(Fig. 299), 
where the rain- 
fall varies with 
the season. Why 
(p. 34) ? 

In the savan- 
nas (p. 55), where 
the climate is always hot, the rainy season lasts for several 
months ; but the remainder of the year is so dry that trees 
do not thrive. Therefore, excepting along the streams, the 
country is open and grass-covered. This condition of drought 
is suggested on the map (Fig. 297) by the small number -of 
streams. It is also indicated by Lake Chad ; for, although a 
good sized stream enters this lake, it has no outlet. Notice 




Fig. 299. 

To show the influence of climate on vegetation. In 
the savanna area there are numerous forest-covered 
sections, especially near the rivers. 



CLIMATE 419 

that the boundary of the lake is marked by a broken line, 
meaning that it cannot be fixed. During the dry season the 
lake is smaller than Lake Erie ; but with the wet season it 
rises, overflows the surrounding country,- and becomes several 
times as large. Where are the corresponding savannas in South 
America? (p. 103). 

As the tropical forest grades into the savanna, so the 
savanna grades into the true desert (Fig. 299), where the 
influence of the drying trade winds is felt at all times of 
the year. The northern desert is larger and better developed 
than that south of the equator. This is due partly to the 
fact that the continent is so broad in the north, and partly 
to the large land areas which lie to the north and east — ■ 
the directions from which the winds of northern Africa 
must come. On the mountain slopes near the Mediter- 
ranean there is moderate rainfall ; and likewise on the 
southeastern slopes of South Africa where the winds blow 
from the sea. 

The Sahara, which in places extends to the very shores of 
the Mediterranean, forms a part of the most extensive desert 
belt of the world. Trace this belt into Asia. It is character- 
ized by cloudless skies and almost complete absence of rain ; 
but here and there, on the mountain slopes, there is moderate 
rainfall. It is this which supplies the widely scattered springs 
and the short mountain streams. In the dry, clear desert air 
the nights are cool, even in summer, although the midday tem- 
perature may reach 100° or even 125° in the shade. 

Plants and Animals. — Northern Africa is so close to 
southern Europe that there is a marked resemblance 
between the animals and plants on the two sides of the 
Mediterranean. The desert, however, serves as an effec- 
tive barrier to their spread southward. 




ELEPHANT 



The M.N. Co., Buffalo. 






Fig. 300. 
Some of the African animals. 



LION 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



421 




Portions of the desert, especially where covered with 
dunes of moving sand, are almost void of plant life. 
Animals are also few 
in number and limited 
in kind, among them 
being the ostrich (Fig. 
300) and the camel 
(Fig. 301). What 
have you previously 
learned a "bout the 
plants and animals of 
the desert ? (p. 58). 
The oases, on the 
other hand, support a 
number of plants. Of 
these the date palm is most notable, for it is an important 
source of food for the nomads of the desert. 

In the desert of South Africa there is a resemblance to the 
plants and animals of the Sahara; but many of the species 

are different. 
The dense tropi- 
cal forest is as 
effective a bar- 
r i e r to the 
spread of desert 
, hfeasthe desert 
itself is to the 
spread of plants 
■and animals 
that are adapted 
to humid cli- 
mates. What 
would happen to seeds carried by winds or animals from one 
of these places to the other? 




Fig. 302. 
A crocodile on the bank of the Nile. 



422 



AFRICA 



The open country between the desert and the tropical 
forest abounds in large animals (Fig. 300). Among these, 

on the savannas, and on the 
edge of the forest, are the 
antelope, giraffe, buffalo, zebra, 
elephant, lion, leopard, and 
rhinoceros, while the crocodile 
(Fig. 302) and the huge hip- 
popotamus live in the rivers. 
The dense forest itself is 
shunned by many of the larger 
forms, though teeming with 
insect life, birds, reptiles, 
and tree-dwelling mammals. 
Among the latter are the ba- 
boon, the gorilla, and the chim- 
panzee (Fig. 300). 

There is a close resemblance 
between the animals and plants 
of Africa and Asia (p. 361). 
Those of the Sahara are also 
found in the deserts of Asia ; 
and the tropical life of the 
savannas and forests of Africa 
is similar to that of southern 
Asia. They are, in fact, so closely alike that the two regions 
are classed as one great life zone, the Ethiopian. But although 
in the same latitude with South America, the African animals 
and plants differ greatly from those of South America because 
of the broad ocean barrier. 

The People. — Central and southern Africa is the home 
of the negroes, who are divided into many tribes with dif- 
ferent customs. Some are fierce and warlike, others peace- 




Fig. 303. 
A Zulu warrior in fighting dress. 



PEOPLE 



423 



ful ; those dwelling in the forest live by hunting ; those 
upon the savaifnas, by primitive agriculture and by herd- 
ing. For centuries they were captured by the whites and 
sold in slavery ; 
but the day of 
the white slave- 
trade is now al- 
. most past. In 
spite of the for- 
mer frequency of 
slave-hunting 
raids, and the 
great destruction 
of life in the 
fierce tribal wars, 
there are many 
negroes left. 
With a fertile 
soil, and in a 
warm climate, 
they are able to 

support themselves with a minimum of work, especially 
along the rivers and on the savannas. 

While the forest and much of the savanna have been 
dominated by the negro even down to the present day, 
the arid sections of northern Africa have been held by 
the whites since very early times. Near the border line 
between the two races there has been such a mixture of 
blood that the population is largely of half-breeds. 

The whites of northern Africa are in part herders, living 
the nomadic life so characteristic of such lands. They are 
energetic and intelligent, though fierce and warlike. Upon 




AFRICA. 
Density of Population 

I I Less than 1 per Square Mile, 
EE3 1-25 " •'• 



l'iV.UU 



Fig. 304. 



424 



AFBICA 



the oases are colonies of farmers, especially along the lower 
Nile, which is really an immense oasis in frhe midst of an 
almost trackless desert; but since the means of support are 
meagre, the desert itself must always be thinly inhabited. 

Northern Africa figured prominently in the early his- 
tory of Europe. To the ancient civilization of Egypt 
the early Europeans owed a part of their civilization. 
For those who dwelt upon the shores of the enclosed 
Mediterranean, after gaining knowledge of sailing, .often 
came in contact with the Egyptians. 

The Egyptian nation, once powerful and highly developed, 
was later conquered by the Romans, and finally fell into de- 
cay. Its promi- 
nence in olden 
times is indicated 
by the part it 
played in the Old 
Testament his- 
tory. Give some 
examples. 

Although the 
Greeks and Ro- 
mans were famil- 
iar with northern 
Africa near the 
Mediterranean, most of the remainder of the great conti- 
nent was a vast unknown. Yet that such ignorance was 
not due entirely to distance is proved by the fact that the 
Mediterranean people were in communication with the more 
distant lands of southern Asia. It was the broad desert bar- 
rier, with its fierce nomadic inhabitants, that checked explora- 
tion by land ; and the terrors of voyages on the open ocean in 
small boats prohibited exploration by water. 

Exploration and Settlement. — The Indies, famed for 
their precious stones, spices, and other valuable products, 




Fig. 305. 
Nubians of the Nile. 



EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT 



425 



were reached, by long journeys overland." But even be- 
fore the famous voyage of Columbus, the Portuguese — the 
most progressive sailors of that day — were engaged in an 
attempt to reach these distant lands by sailing around the 
southern end of Africa. After various voyages, the Cape 
of Good Hope was finally passed and the way to the Indies 
by water was opened in 1498. 




Fig. 306. 

A pyramid in the desert near Cairo — one of the remarkable works of the 

ancient Egyptians. 



The Portuguese made settlements on the east and west coasts 
of Africa, and they still have extensive possessions there (Fig. 
297). But progress toward development and settlement has 
been slow for various reasons, among which perhaps the most 
important is the fact that so much of Africa is tropical. The 
desert is forbidding, and the hot, damp climate of the coastal 
strip, upon which colonies were naturally first established, was 
found particularly unheal thful (p. 417). In addition, travel 
into the interior was prevented by hostile hordes of blacks, and 
by the absence of navigable rivers. Moreover, those who were 



426 



AFRICA 




willing to leave Europe were more attracted toward the conti- 
nents of Australia and America. Why? 

By far the most successful settlement in the newly dis- 
covered parts of Africa was that made by the Dutch 

at Cape Colony, a 
little later than their 
settlement of New 
York. As in the 
case of New York, 
the British seized 
their territory ; but, 
by migrating north- 
ward, the Dutch 
people were able to 
maintain an inde- 
pendent hold upon 
a part of South 
Africa until, in 1900, their territory was once more 
seized by the British. 

During the nineteenth century Livingston, Stanley, and 
others entered the " dark continent " ; and since their 
efforts, exploration has been rapid. Many European 
nations have taken part in the exploration, and as a 
result have claimed territory. But the British have 
been by far the most active. What other nations have 
possessions there? (Fig. 297). 

The British have done most toward the development of 
Africa, partly because they control the most desirable portions, 
— the fertile valley of the Nile in the north, and the southern 
part with its favorable climate and wonderful mineral resources. 
They iioav propose to build a railway from Cape Town to Cairo, 
and a part of it is already completed (Fig. 297). 



Fig. 307. 
Bedouin nomads on the desert of Sahara. 



THE SAHARA 



427 



Northern Africa 

Political Divisions. — Much of northern Africa is such 
a desert that its inhabitants are few and scattered. It is, 
however, under the control of various nations. The greater 
part of the Sahara is claimed by the French, though the 
Spanish hold a small section on the western coast, and the 
British control both the Libyan desert and the Egyptian 
Sudan in the east. Along the Mediterranean coast are 
several well-settled sections, 
the best known being Egypt. 
The four countries west of 
Egypt — Tripoli, Tunis, Al- 
geria, and Morocco — are often 
called the Barbary States (the 
home of the Berbers). 

The Sahara. — From the At- 
lantic to the Red Sea, and 
from near the Mediterranean 
to the grass lands of the 
Sudan, there is almost un- 
broken desert — the famous 
Sahara. Its area is estimated 
to be from three to four mill- 
ion square miles, or about equal 
to that of the entire United 
States. It is a plateau of un- 
even surface, with mountain 
ranges here and there, and bor- 
dered on the north by the Atlas Mountains. The wind- 
swept highlands are bare and stony, while the lowlands 
have extensive areas of sand dunes. 




Fig. 308. 

Biskra, in Algeria, on the northern 

edge of the Sahara. 



428 



AFRICA 



Much of the soil is fertile, and with rainfall would yield 
abundant crops. But nature has forbidden rain, and its 
surface is therefore barren in the extreme. Only on the 
oases, of which there are some four hundred in the Sahara, 
is there the necessary drinking water which renders hu- 
man life possible in the desert. 




Fig. 309. 
A negro hut in Zululand. 

Caravans cross this desert, one of the important routes being 
from Tafilet in Morocco, southward to Timbukto. There may 
be from a thousand to fifteen hundred camels in one caravan, 
and a full year may be required to equip it. Each camel is 
carefully selected by the chief of the caravan, and many extra 
camels are taken along to replace those that give out on the 
journey. There is one driver for every dozen camels. 

Upon starting, the loads are carefully packed on the camels' 
backs, each animal bearing about three hundred pounds. A 



THE 8 AH ABA 



429 



clay's march lasts sixteen hours, the camels travelling some thirty 
abreast at the rate of about two miles an hour. Ordinary camels 
cannot travel more than three days without drinking ; but the 
better grades are able to go for six or seven days without water 
and with almost no food. The trip across the Sahara, from 
north to south, requires fully three months. Estimate the dis- 
tance. At best nearly a third of the animals perish in the round 
trip ; and before the return journey is undertaken it is neces- 
sary for those surviving to have a rest of several weeks. 




Fig. 310. 
A nomad camp on the northern edge of the Sahara. 



An advance party precedes the caravan to make arrange- 
ments for camping and for water. Many roundabout journeys 
are necessary to pass deep valleys and plateaus, for caravans 
go around rather than over obstacles. The daytime is hot ; but 
as soon as the sun sets, the temperature rapidly falls and the 
nights become cold even in midsummer. 

There are dangers in the journey aside from that of thirst. 
Sometimes sand storms arise ; and although such a storm may 
not last a half-hour, it may destroy a whole caravan. The 
wind blows violently, and sand fills the air and drifts about in 
such quantities that animals and men alike are suffocated in 
the drifts. Also small caravans may be attacked by wander- 



430 



AFRICA 



ing tribes of warlike natives ; and near the southern edge of 
the desert the danger from attack by the lion is added. It 
evidently requires courage and great powers of endurance to 

engage in the car- 
avan trade. 

Caravans 
which cross the 
desert carry the 
products of cen- 
tral Africa to 
the coast. These 
include ivory, 
skins, and os- 
trich feathers 
obtained by 
bartering with 
the negroes. 

Egypt and the 
Neighboring 
British Terri- 
tory.— Egypt 
proper and the 
Libyan desert are parts of the broad Sahara and have 
all the features of the desert just described. Even at 
Cairo the average yearly rainfall is but an inch and a 
half. In climate, both for summer and winter, northern 
Egypt closely resembles the desert portion of western 
Arizona and southeastern California. 

The Nile. — The Egyptian Sudan and the country south 
of it, on the other hand, have a tropical climate, arid in 
the north, but warm and humid in the south, where the 
influence of the tropical rains is felt. The headwaters 




Fig. 311. 

Sudanese people from the Egyptian Sudan. 



EGYPT 



431 



of the Nile, near the equator, are fed by such heavy rains 
that the river is able to flow across the desert in spite of 
the fact that no tributaries enter the lower half of its 
course. How great a distance is that ? 

Without the Nile the whole of northern Egypt would 
be a sparsely inhabited desert ; but the precious river 
waters transform the section near the Mediterranean 
(Fig. 313) to a great oasis which has become the seat of 




Fig. 312. 

Sailboats on the lower Nile. 

an important agricultural industry, and is densely popu- 
lated. 

After leaving the region of equatorial rains and the savan- 
nas, the Nile crosses the desert through a valley — in places 
a thousand feet in depth — which it has cut in the plateau. 
In this part of its course there are several cataracts (see Fig. 
297). The Nile resembles the Colorado River of the United 
States, which, after leaving the Rocky Mountains, flows in a 
deep canyon across the arid plateau of Arizona ; but the can- 
yon of the Colorado is much deeper than that of the Nile. 
Below Cairo the river leaves its narrow valley, divides into 
several channels, and flows across a plain (Fig. 313). This 
plain is the delta which the Nile has built in the Mediter- 
ranean Sea during the ages that the river has been bringing 



432 



AFRICA 



sediment from its upper course. It is from the Nile that we 
have obtained the word delta, now applied to similar deposits 

Sea, 



Mediterranean 




Fig. 313. 
The lower Nile. The shaded area between the two deserts is farming land 
which is reached by water from the river. The numerous crossed lines 
are railways. Find the Pyramids. Why is the location at the head of a 
fertile delta, and at the outlet of a narrow river valley bounded by desert, 
a favorable one for a large city ? 



EGYPT 433 

at the mouths of rivers in various parts of the world. The 
word comes from the Greek letter delta (A), which has the form 
of a triangle. Notice that shape in Figure 313. 

When the rainy season comes to the Nile tributaries 
among the Abyssinian mountains, the river rises so high 
that it overflows large tracts of the broad delta below 
Cairo. The rise begins in June and reaches its height in 




Fig. 314. 
The great Pyramid of Cheops. 

October. By this overflow not only is the land irrigated, 
but a thin layer of fine mud is spread over the fields. 
This serves so to fertilize the soil that, year after year, 
heavy crops may be raised without making the soil sterile. 
Agriculture. — In consequence of these remarkably 
favorable conditions, the Nile delta has been occupied 
by an agricultural people from the very earliest times. 
It is still the seat of a great grain industry, producing 
2f 



434 



AFRICA 



wheat, corn, millet, and barley. Much rice and sugar cane 
are also raised, and cotton which is of especial value 
because of its long fibre. There are many vineyards, 
and orange, lemon, and fig groves ; and both along the 
Nile and on the oases of the desert there are groves of 




Fig. 315. 
The Sphinx and two of the Pyramids. 

date palms (Fig. 806). Grazing is of importance in the 
Nile Valley, and on the neighboring plateau. The animals 
raised include the buffalo and camel in addition to sheep, 
goats, cattle, horses, and donkeys. 

The People. — The known history of Egypt reaches 
back several thousand years before the time of Christ. 
The fertile soil and favorable climate, added to the pro- 
tection from frequent wars which the surrounding desert 



EGYPT 



435 



and sea afforded, encouraged the 
development of industry and thrift. 
By the mixture of agricultural and 
pastoral races there arose a civiliza- 
tion in advance of that of the neigh- 
boring section's of Europe and Asia. 
In fact, at the time when Europe 
was inhabited by barbarians, and 
the peoples of western Asia were 
unorganized, Egypt had made long 
advances in civilization. 

We read in the Bible of the Pha- 
raohs who ruled over Egypt. Can you 
recall any of the Bible stories which 
relate to these rulers ; for example, the 
story of Joseph ? During those times 
the Egyptians built the obelisks (Eig. 





Fig. 317. 
An Arab woman in Cairo. 



316), the sphinx (Fig. 
315), and those marvel- 
lous structures, the pyra- 
mids (Figs. 306 and 314), 
which are really the tombs 
of kings. By a peculiar 
process they preserved the 
bodies of their dead, and 
these mummies may be 
seen in the museums of 
many large cities. Among 
the mummies are the re- 
mains of the Pharaohs 
themselves. 

In the movement 
westward of the people 



436 



AFRICA 




who dwelt along the 
eastern shores of the 
Mediterranean and far- 
ther east in Asia, Egypt 
became one of the high- 
ways of the world, and 
against its people many 
destructive wars were 
waged. As other nations 
have advanced, the 
Egyptians have steadily 
lost ground. The fa- 
mous conqueror, Alex- 



Fig. 318. 
An Egyptian sheik, a descendant of Mo- 
hammed. 

ander the Great, overcame them and 
founded the city of Alexandria ; later 
the Romans made conquest of the 
territory ; and repeatedly since then 
the country has been invaded, for it has 
continued to be a highway of trade for 
three continents. At present Egypt is 
required to pay annual tribute to Tur- 
key, but she is otherwise practically 
independent of Turkey ; and the ruler, 
or Khedive, is a hereditary monarch. 
The government of Egypt was so bad 
that the French and British finally 
stepped in and took control of the 
finances of the nation. When the 
French declined to aid in subduing a 




Fig. 319. 

A Fellah woman and 
child. 



EGYPT 



437 



rebellion in Egypt, the British alone assumed a large share 
in the control of Egyptian affairs. 

The great majority of the Egyptians are Mohammedans 
(Fig. 318), but they are divided into several classes. The 
most numerous class is that of the fellahs (Fig. 319), or 
peasants, who live along the Nile and are apparently descend- 
ants of the ancient Egyptian farmers. In the towns most of 
the business is in the hands of the Copts, who are the rem- 




Fig. 320. 
The Suez Canal at Port Said. 



nants of the ruling classes of ancient Egypt. They are still 
Christians in spite of centuries of oppression by the Moham- 
medans. A third class is that of the Arabs, among whom are 
the nomadic Bedouins (Fig. 307) who dwell in the desert. 

As a result of British direction there has recently been 
marked progress in Egypt. Extensive irrigation works 
have been undertaken, and the land area for cotton and 
sugar cane. has thereby been greatly increased. By means 
of reservoirs and canals it is further proposed to reclaim 



438 



AFRICA 



thousands of square miles of the desert. A number of 
railway lines has also been built (Fig. 313), including 

a part of the proposed 




line from Cairo to Cape 
Town (p. 426). Out- 
side of the Nile Valley, 
however, travel still 
depends largely upon 
the use of camels (Fig. 
306). 

Suez Canal. — 
Northeastern Egypt 
includes the Isthmus 
of Suez, which connects 
Africa with Asia. This narrow neck of land has for cen- 
turies stood as a barrier to water travel from Europe to 
southeastern Asia, compelling Euro- 
pean vessels to pass all the way 
around Africa in order to reach 
southern Asia. Little wonder is it, 
therefore, that a ship canal has been 
built there. 



Fig. 321. 
A view of a part of Cairo. 



The Suez Canal, begun in 1859, was 
completed in 1869. It extends from 
Suez to Port Said (Fig. 297), and is 
eighty-seven miles long, with a depth 
of twenty-six feet and a width at the 
surface varying from sixty-five to one 
hundred and twenty yards. Its length 
is much greater than that of the pro- 
posed Panama Canal, but the difficul- 
ties of construction were less. The country is very level, and, 
as in the case of the proposed Nicaraguan Canal, a part of the 




Fig. 322. 
One of the mosques in Cairo. 



EGYPT 



439 



course (about twenty-one miles) is through a lake. Ten vessels 

on the average pass through the Suez Canal each day. Estimate 

the distance 

saved by this 

canal in going 

from London to 

Calcutta. By 

agreement among 

nations it cannot 

be captured and 

closed in time of 




Fig. 323. 

An Arab school in the streets of Cairo. 



Cities. — At 
the head of the 
delta, just 
above the point 
where the Nile 
branches (Fig. 
313), is Cairo, 
the capital and 
largest city of Egypt and, in fact, of all Africa. It is 
about the size of St. Louis, having a population of 570,000. 
This interesting place is visited each year by a stream of 
tourists, some seeking a winter health resort, others at- 
tracted by the strange life of the country and the remark- 
able ruins of the old civilization (Figs. 314-316). 

Cairo itself contains the palace of the Khedive, several in- 
teresting mosques (Fig. 322), and a museum in which are pre- 
served many Egyptian antiquities and works of art. The 
inhabitants also attract attention, for in the streets may be 
seen many people with different languages and peculiar cus- 
toms. The differences among the people may be illustrated 
by the following fact : there are three Sabbaths each week, 



440 



AFRICA 




Friday, the Sabbath of the Mohammedans, Saturday, observed 
by the Jews, and Sunday, by the Christians. 

Alexandria, connected with Cairo by rail (Fig. 313), 
is the seaport of Egypt and the second city in size in the 
country. The harbor, which is a very busy place, is pro- 
tected by a sea wall nearly two miles in length. The chief 

business is the export of 
cotton, sugar, grain, and 
other Egyptian prod- 
ucts, and the importa- 
tion of manufactured 
goods. More than half 
the trade is with Great 
Britain. 

The Barbary States. 
— Find the position of 
each of these four coun- 
tries. Each borders the 
Mediterranean, but extends southward into the desert 
(p. 427). 

The Atlas Mountains skirt the Mediterranean coast from 
the Atlantic to Tunis, where their projection into the 
Mediterranean forms the most northerly point in Africa. 
These mountains contain many valuable mineral products, 
including precious metals in Morocco and Algeria, and 
marble and alabaster in the latter country. These mineral 
resources, however, have been but slightly developed. 

Since the Atlas Mountains cause vapor to be condensed 
when winds blow from the ocean or from the Mediter- 
ranean, many of the valleys are well watered. Forests 
cover some of the mountain slopes, and one of the valuable 
trees is the cork oak, the bark of which is removed for 



Fig. 324. 
The costume of women in Algeria. 



BARB ART STATES 



441 



shipment from Algeria to Spain and Portugal. Camels, 
sheep, goats, and cattle are raised among the mountains 
and upon the plateaus. In the season of rainfall — our 
winter — they are driven to the plains on the borders of 
the desert. 

Agriculture is carried on here and there, often by means 
of irrigation, with water supplied by the mountain snows 
and rains, as in 
southern Cali- 
fornia. T h e 
villages are 
therefore situ- 
ated where val- 
leys open to the 
plains. Among 
the crops pro- 
duced, besides 
dates and grains, 
are figs, grapes, 
and olives. 
Wine from the 
grapes of Al- 




Fig. 325. 
A scene in Morocco, on the edge of the Sahara. 



geria is shipped in large quantities to France ; and the 
best olive oil and the best dates in the world come from 
Tunis. 

The original occupants of this region, the Berbers, still 
dwell on the desert and among the mountains, having been 
driven there long ago by invading Arabs. Most of the 
inhabitants are Mohammedans. Tripoli is still a Turkish 
province, but Tunis and Algeria are held by France. 
However, the native ruler, or Bey, of Tunis is permitted 
to direct affairs in his country under the supervision of 



442 



AFRICA 



France. Morocco is the only one of the Barbary States 
that maintains independence, being ruled by an absolute 
monarch, or Sultan. Can you suggest why the conflicting 
interests of Spain, France, and England should prevent 
conquest by any one ? 



Many of the inhabitants of Morocco are still barbarians, and 
some of the tribes among the mountains even refuse to recognize 

the rule of the Sultan. On the 
whole the people are cruel and 
treacherous, and if a vessel is 
wrecked upon their coast, it is sure 
to be plundered by them. Only 
within the last hundred years have 
they been obliged to abandon their 
custom of seizing Christians and 
holding them for ransom. 

Conditions of life in Morocco 
are shown by the following : The 
writer once visited a school in 
Tangier consisting of a dozen boys 
from nine to ten years of age. The 
room where they studied received 
its only light from the open door, 
and it contained no seats, desks, 
or furniture of any kind. The 
children sat on the floor in a semi- 
circle around a long-bearded old 
man, who likewise sat on the floor, 
and the only object they had before them was a page from the 
Koran, or Mohammedan Bible. What does such a condition of 
education indicate in regard to progress ? If this is the case 
on the coast, almost within the shadow of Europe, what must 
be the condition farther inland ? 

Almost the only manufacturing in these states is hand work. 
Beautiful silk and woollen goods are made, and also articles of 




Fig. 326. 

A street in the " Old Town " of 
Algiers. 



BABBARY STATES 



443 



leather. Most of these articles are intended for their own use; 
but because of the beauty of the work some are exported. 

These countries are only partially developed. Caravan trade, 
herding, and agriculture are the chief occupations. Excepting 
in northern Algeria and Tunis, there are no railways and few 
roads. In fact, in 
many parts the 
only way to travel 
is on horseback or 
on camels, along 
paths worn by the 
sheep and goats. 
Even agriculture is 
carried on in the 
most primitive 
fashion, some of 
the methods em- 
ployed being those 
of two thousand 
years ago. 

The houses are 
made of stone and 
sun-dried brick 
(Fig. 325), with 
thick walls to keep 
out the heat of 

summer. They are commonly low and one storied, although 
some of the larger buildings are interesting and even beautiful 
(Fig. 327). Much the same style of architecture was intro- 
duced into the New World by the early Spaniards, who were 
taught it by the Moors when they invaded Spain from northern 
Africa. 

The capitals are the principal cities among the Barbary 
States. Fez, one of the capitals of Morocco, is in the in- 
terior ; but the Sultan and his court do not reside there 
all the } r ear. Name the other capital. Tangier, on the 




Fig. 327. 
Church of Notre Dame- in Ah 



444 



AFRICA 



coast, is better known. Why should it be ? In Algeria 
the seaport Algiers is the capital and largest city. It is 
an interesting place, combining many features of ancient 
and modern times. Under the French it has become an 
important trading centre. The same is true of Tunis, 




Fig. 328. 
A view of the plateau of South Africa. A Zulu village in the foreground." 

the capital of the country by that name. Locate the capi- 
tal of Tripoli. 

Southern Africa 

Comparison with Northern Africa. — In some important 
respects there is a resemblance between northern and 
southern Africa, although they lie in different hemispheres. 
What similarities are there in climate (p. 419) and physi- 



SOUTHERN AFRICA 445 

ography (p. 415) ? There is a resemblance, too, in the 
fact that both sections have long been settled by white 
men. What difference is there in the length of occupation 
by white men ? 

The People. — It is to the Dutch that we owe the first 
important development of South Africa. Settling at 
Cape Town, and then spreading over the neighboring 



S'^VV^'i^i 


'.? I '"5 >,'. ' ',. »■¥ 


§jL 




^/', .'* . 


■■", 


'"™" "' ~ . . 


£m 


bmi 


^i^S 


» ■ 


■■■: * ■;> - ^ 


.,,. 


j£,r&m 












'^"fflRS 




5H 


^*^rss^jjl 


Cssilfefr 



Fig. 329. 
A Zulu woman making a straw mat. 

region, they took possession of the country occupied by 
the negroes and introduced the European industries of 
farming and ranching. 

When Cape Colony came into possession of the British 
(p. 426), many of the Dutch remained; but others emi- 
grated, or "treked," northward and found new homes in 
the interior. There they established two republics, the 
Transvaal and the Orange Free State, in which they de- 
sired to continue the customs of their forefathers and live 
in the pursuit of agriculture and herding. 



446 



AFRICA 



Doubtless the Boers, as these people are called, would 
have been left to themselves but for the discovery of won- 
derfully rich deposits of gold. The mines were developed 
by British capital, and friction arose between the mine 
owners and the Boers. War followed, as a result of which 

the Transvaal and 
the Orange Free 
State were de- 
clared British 
colonies in 1900. 

At present, there- 
fore, the British 
control a broad 
strip from the 
southern tip of 
Africa northward 
to the southern end 
of Lake Tangan- 
yika. What are 
the names of the 
British colonies in 
South Africa (Fig. 
297) ? What nations control the land to the east and west 
of the British possessions? Besides the Boers there are 
many British in South Africa, especially in Cape Colony 
and at the gold mines of the Transvaal. There are also large 
numbers of negroes in -this region, particularly in the tropical 
section and in Zululand in northern Natal (Fig. 303). Some 
of them, like the Zulus, have fiercely opposed the encroach- 
ment of the whites and still maintain semi-independent states. 
They are, however, making progress toward civilization. 

Agriculture and Grazing. — Along the east coast, and 
in some of the interior valleys, agriculture is an impor- 
tant industry. Sugar, bananas, pineapples, tea, coffee, 




Fig. 330. 
A pineapple field in South Africa. 



SOUTHERN AFRICA 



447 



and rice are raised near the coast, where the climate is 
warm and damp. But wheat, tobacco, vegetables, and 
grapes are produced in the cooler south, and upon the 
uplands wherever the rainfall is sufficient or irrigation 
possible. 

By far the greater part of South Africa is an arid 
plateau (Fig. 828), whose elevation causes cold winters 




Fig. 331. 

Cattle in the Transvaal. 



in spite of the latitude. Forests are absent, and little 
wood is found excepting that which comes from the 
thorny acacia bushes of the plains and the willows and 
other trees that grow along the streams. Excepting in 
the real desert, the grass springs into life after the sum- 
mer rains (November and December), and the country 
becomes green and beautiful. Then follows a long 
drought, when the vegetation withers. But, as in the 



448 AFRICA 

arid part of western United States, the dried grass is 
a sort of natural hay upon which cattle and sheep thrive. 

Upon this plateau, therefore, immense numbers of cattle, 
sheep, and goats are raised, and also many ostriches. It is 
estimated that in Cape Colony alone there are over eigh- 
teen million sheep and goats, one million cattle, and two 
hundred and fifty thousand ostriches. In consequence, the 
production of wool, hides, meat, and ostrich feathers is of 
great importance. Of what value are these products to 
Great Britain ? 

Mineral Wealth. — The discovery of gold in South 
Africa has brought great changes, as among the moun- 
tains in the arid section of western United States. This 
metal is found scattered through a conglomerate rock in 
the Transvaal, near the city of Johannesburg, which 
on that account has become the largest city of South 
Africa. This district has become the most important in 
gold production in the world; in 1898 more gold was 
mined here than in the entire United States. 

Other valuable minerals, including copper, iron, and 
coal, also occur ; but as yet they have been little de- 
veloped. At Kimberley in Cape Colony, however, are 
diamond mines, which now supply ninety-eight per cent 
of all diamonds. 

The diamonds occur as rounded crystals in a decomposed 
volcanic rock, and are obtained by digging out the soft rock 
(Fig. 332) and carefully removing the crystals. After this 
the crystals must be cut into the proper shape and polished. 
There are various grades, some clear and beautiful, others 
impure and dull. So productive is this deposit of precious 
stones that $160,000,000 worth have been removed in eleven 
years. There is only a limited demand for diamonds ; but the 



SOUTHERN AFRICA 



449 



company in control is careful not to mine enough of them to 
reduce the price greatly. This is possible since the Kimberley 
mine owners have a practical monopoly of the diamond pro- 
duction of the world. 

Commerce and Cities. — The two chief rivers of South 
Africa are of little use as trade routes. The Orange River 




Fig. 332. 
A diamond mine at Kimberley. 

is not navigable, because of lack of water and the presence 
of rapids at the edge of the plateau. The other, the 
Zambesi, is navigable by small boats for a distance of 
three hundred miles from its mouth ; but the climate 
near the coast, especially on the delta, is warm and un- 
healthful. Rapid water checks further navigation, and 
2g 



450 AFRICA 

at one point there is a cataract, the Victoria Falls (see 
map, Fig. 297), which rivals even Niagara in grandeur. 
This cataract has a width of over a mile and a height of 
four hundred and fifty feet. It is therefore both wider 
and higher than Niagara ; but the volume of water is less. 
Nor is the coast especially favorable to commerce. For 
long distances there are no good harbors, while the river 




Fig. 333. 
Cape Town with Table Mountain (3500 feet high) in the distance. 

mouths are choked with sand bars which render entrance 
difficult. A breakwater has made Table Bay a good port, 
and around its shores, beautifully situated at the base of 
Table Mountain (Fig. 333), is Cape Town, the capital 
and largest city of Cape Colony. It is connected with 
the interior by a railway line, the southern end of the 
proposed railway from Cape Town to Cairo. 



CENTRAL AFRICA 



451 



A second important harbor is that of Delagoa Bay, upon 
which is situated LouRENgo Marquez, the capital of Portu- 
guese East Africa. Being connected by rail with the interior, 
this port has been much used for the shipment of Transvaal 
products. Notice how much nearer it is to Johannesburg 
from this point than from Cape Town. Durban, the seaport 
of Natal, is a small city also connected with the Transvaal 
by rail. The two principal interior cities are Kimberley 
and Johannesburg (p. 448). There is no important town in 




Fig. 334. 

A scene at the market in Kimberley. Oxen are extensively used by the Boers 
as draught-animals. 

German South Africa, which is for the most part an arid 
plateau. To what nation does Walfisch Bay belong ? 



Central Africa 

This vast area is in large part a great unknown. Much 
of it is tropical forest ; but on the northern and southern 
sides are open savannas (p. 418). 

The Rivers. — Owing to the heavy rainfall of the forest 
belt, the rivers are large. The Nile and Zambesi, already 



452 



AFRICA 



described, and the Niger and Kongo, all receive water 
from the equatorial rains. The Niger is navigable in 
sections ; but there are rapids in some parts, and in its 
northern portion the river dwindles in size because of the 
dry climate. Its large tributary, the Benue, is navigable. 
It is the immense Kongo, which empties into the sea 
a few degrees south of the equator, that offers the best 




Fig. 335. 
A steamer on the Kongo. 

means of entrance to Central Africa. Although it is 
interrupted by a series of falls a short distance from the 
coast, above Stanley Pool there are thousands of miles of 
navigable waters in the main river and its tributaries. 

It was Stanley who first explored the Kongo, in 1876 ; and 
since that time this part of Africa has been rapidly developing. 
Formerly it was necessary to carry goods around the rapids, 
each native porter carrying about sixty pounds. Only in this 
way was Stanley able to carry his boats to the navigable por- 
tion farther up stream. Now, however, a railway two hundred 
and fifty miles in length connects the lower Kongo with Leo- 



CENTRAL AFRICA 453 

poldville on Stanley Pool above the falls. From there, at all 
seasons of the year, steamers may go a thousand miles up the 
river and also into many tributaries. 

Resources. — Half a century ago the most important 
industry in tropical Africa was trade in negro slaves, 
obtained by means of war, by raids, or by purchase from 
the chiefs, and sold to slave dealers to be shipped abroad. 
Now the shipment of plant and animal products takes the 
place of the slave trade. But there is still much slave- 
trading among Africans themselves. 

On the forest edge and in the savannas elephants are 
still hunted for the valuable ivory of their tusks. The 
forests yield rubber ; the dried meat of the cocoanut is ex- 
ported as copra; and there are valuable gums, spices, and 
tropical woods. Agriculture and grazing are also carried 
on, though few of the products are exported. So little is 
known about this region that no one can tell what valuable 
minerals may exist there. 

The People. — Very few Europeans have settled in Cen- 
tral Africa, and the native blacks live almost as their an- 
cestors did. Contact with civilization, however, has caused 
some changes, as the introduction of firearms and some 
slight improvements in the methods of farming. Most of 
the inhabitants live in ingeniously built huts clustered in 
villages. They have a kind of tribal government, each 
tribe having a leader whose power is absolute, and under 
whom are minor chiefs. Some of the tribes are cannibals. 
In religion they vary greatly, though all are intensely 
superstitious (p. 91). 

Among the blacks none are more remarkable than the pyg- 
mies whom Stanley discovered in the equatorial forest, where 
large numbers live in an area of about thirty thousand square 



454 



AFRICA 



miles. The adults are only three or four feet in height. They 
live exclusively by hunting, by gathering the vegetable prod- 
ucts of the forest, and by theft from the neighboring agricul- 
tural tribes. Their villages are usually built in the forest 
where two paths cross, and the huts are shaped like a turtle's 
back, being about four and a half feet high, ten feet long, and 







Fig. 336. 
A scene in tropical Africa, on the bank of the Kongo. 



five or six feet wide. In that hot climate they find need for 
but little clothing. 

With a small spear, a short bow with poisoned arrows, and 
a knife, they hunt with wonderful skill, and by means of pit- 
falls they capture even the elephant. They know the forest 
intimately, and neither bird nor beast can escape them. Ac- 
cording to Stanley they offer one of the greatest obstacles 
to exploration ; for they appear stealthily, attack a party with 
great courage, and then disappear in the trackless woods. 



CENTRAL AFRICA 455 

Divisions of Central Africa. — European nations have 
been active in claiming the greater part of Central Africa; 
but their control over the native inhabitants is merely 
nominal, and the boundaries of the different sections are 
not well defined. We shall study briefly some of the 
more important divisions. 

The Sudan includes the vast area between the Sahara 
and the tropical forest. What can you tell about its 
climate? (p. 418). More than half of the Sudan is claimed 
by the French, and most of the remainder, including the 
Niger Territories and the Egyptian Sudan (p. 430), is held 
by the British. The inhabitants are nomadic in the north, 
and agricultural in the south, though they raise little more 
than is needed for their own use. There is some gold in 
the west ; but the principal products are ivory, ostrich 
feathers, and gums. 

The Sudan is difficult of access, being bordered by the 
Sahara on the north, the tropical forest on the south, and the 
plateau edge on the east, west, and southwest. Water routes 
are of little service, since some of the drainage is into interior 
basins, like Lake Chad, and some into the Nile and Niger, which 
are interrupted by rapids. The difficulty of reaching Tim- 
bukto, for example, is shown by the fact that there is still an 
important caravan route from that place across the wide Sahara 
to the Mediterranean (p. 428). A railway from Timbukto to 
the sea is now under consideration. What influence would it 
probably have on this caravan route ? Why ? 

East of the Sudan is Abyssinia, which is for the most part a 
rocky plateau crossed by mountains and difficult of access. Its 
condition is indicated by the fact that the capital is periodically 
changed when the supply of firewood is exhausted. It is evident, 
therefore, that there are not many fine government buildings. 
The inhabitants are mainly whites belonging to very different 
tribes which are often hostile to one another. Many of the people 



456 AFRICA 

still hold to Christianity notwithstanding the invasion by Mo- 
hammedans nearly four centuries ago. In 1889 Italy laid claim 
to the whole of Abyssinia ; but in 1896 King Menelik destroyed 
the Italian army, and the Italian claim was withdrawn. Italy 
still holds Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. What other nations 
occupy a part of the coast on the border of Abyssinia ? 

The map shows several small countries on the west coast of 
Africa in the part marked Upper Guinea. Find Loiver Guinea. 
The divisions colored pink belong to the British; those marked 
green to the Germans. Find a section belonging to Spain. 

One of the divisions of Upper Guinea is Liberia, which 
is of special interest to Americans. It is a negro republic 
established by Americans as a home for freed slaves, and 
its capital, Monrovia, is named after President Monroe. 
No white man is permitted to become a citizen. Besides 
uncivilized negroes in the interior, the republic includes 
fully twenty thousand negroes with some knowledge of 
civilization, all living near the coast. The coastal strip is 
damp and unhealthful ; but back of it is the forest-covered 
plateau slope. The products are chiefly coffee, palm oil, 
and sugar. It was the example set by the British in 
founding Sierra Leone as a home for liberated slaves, that 
led to the establishment of the republic of Liberia. 

Kongo State, crossed by the equator and drained by the 
Kongo and its tributaries, was founded by the king of 
Belgium, who supported Stanley in his explorations of 
this region. It is in large part a forest-covered plateau ; 
but there are sections of grass land. Hordes of savages, 
including the pj^gmies, inhabit the forests and savannas ; 
the buffalo, elephant, and leopard live in the rivers ; and 
the roar of the lion is frequently heard. 

Through the building of the railway around the cataract 
of the Kongo, and by the aid of steamers above and below 



CENTRAL AFRICA 



457 



the falls, the resources of this great area are beginning to 
be drawn upon. From it are obtained large quantities of 
ivory, rubber, palm-oil, gum, and pepper, as well as tropi- 
cal woods. 

East of the Kongo State are British and German territories. 
What are they called ? What is their climate ? What prod- 




Fig. 337. 
A scene in tropical Africa. 

ucts would you expect ? Observe to what extent the British 
claim Africa. What break is there in the British territory 
between the Cape of G-ood Hope and the Mediterranean? 
What variety of climate does the British territory include ? 

Need of Railways. — One of the great needs of Central 
Africa is railways for transportation to and from the sea. 
The three large lakes, Nyassa, Tanganyika, and Victoria 
Nyanza, are of great service in the transportation of goods, 
and already there are steamers upon them. Elsewhere 



458 AFRICA 

caravans of native porters bear the products on their backs, 
travelling along narrow paths through the forest. The 
difficulties and expense of such transport are great. 

With British and German energy we may expect that 
railways will soon reach to various parts of the interior of 
Africa ; in fact, a railway to Victoria Nyanza is already 
well under way (Fig. 297). With such railways even 
tropical Africa, during the present century, promises to 
be opened up to development and settlement. 



Islands near Africa 

The large island of Madagascar is two hundred and 
thirty miles from the mainland. It has an area of about 
two hundred and twenty-eight thousand square miles, and 
is, therefore, much larger than any of our states except- 
ing Texas. There is much highland in the country, 
especially on the eastern side ; but the coastal region is 
lowland. The island is controlled by the French, and 
produces cattle, hides, valuable tropical woods, rubber, 
and coffee. While there are some Arabs, and tribes of 
negro origin in the west, the natives are for the most 
part Malays, called Hovas, who came by water from the 
northeast. 

Of the many small islands near the coast of Africa the 
northernmost are the Madeira Islands on the west side. These, 
together with the Cape Verde Islands farther southwest, have 
belonged to Portugal since the early Portuguese voyages of dis- 
covery. The Spanish Canary Islands lie between these two 
groups. Find other islands along the west coast (Fig. 297) 
which belong to Spain and Portugal. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 459 

Ascension Island and St. Helena, south of the equator, are, 
like the above-named groups, volcanic. They belong to Great 
Britain, and St. Helena attained notoriety as the prison home 
of Napoleon Bonaparte. The principal small islands on the 
eastern side of Africa are Zanzibar (British) near the coast, 
and Reunion (French) and Mauritius (British) east of Mada- 
gascar. Locate each of these (Fig. 297). Find other French 
and British islands. These islands are of value as naval 
stations. Their inhabitants are engaged in fishing and in 
agriculture, raising sugar cane and other tropical products. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the shape of Africa ? (2) Com- 
pare the coast of Africa with that of other continents. (3) Tell 
about the highlands ; the rivers and lakes. (4) Describe the belts of 
climate, and compare them witli those of South America. (5) De- 
scribe the plant and animal life and compare it with such life in 
Asia. (6) Tell about : («) the negroes ; (b) the nomads ; (c) the 
whites in the north. (7) Tell about explorations and settlements by 
(«) Portuguese ; (b) Dutch ; (c) British. (8) What have been some 
of the principal obstacles to such explorations and settlements ? 
(9) Name and locate the Barbary States. (10) What portions of 
northern Africa are under the control of European countries ? 
(11) Describe the Sahara. (12) Describe the caravan trip. (13) Tell 
about Egypt : the climate ; the Nile River ; agriculture ; people and 
government; Suez Canal; principal cities. (14) Describe the Barbary 
States: their raw products; manufactures; commerce; inhabitants; 
government. (15) State resemblances between northern and southern 
Africa. (16) Tell about South Africa: the people; agriculture and 
grazing; mining. (17) What about the value of the Orange and 
Zambesi rivers for commerce? (18) Locate and tell about each of 
the cities : (a) Cape Town; (b) Lourenco Marquez; (c) Durban; 
((/) Kimberley ; (e) Johannesburg. (19) Tell about Central Africa : 
the climate and rivers ; the resources ; the people and their customs. 

(20) Name and locate the principal divisions of Central Africa. 

(21) Tell about: (a) the Sudan; (b) Abyssinia; (c) Somaliland; 
(d) Liberia ; (e) Sierra Leone ; (/) Kongo State. (22) What about 
the need of railways ? (23) Name the principal islands near Africa 
and give some facts in regard to them. (24) Name the principal 
possessions of the British in Africa (Fig. 297). (25) Name the pos- 
sessions of other European countries. 



400 AFRICA 

Review and Comparison. — (1) Give several l'easons why Africa 
has been explored and settled so much later than either North or 
South America. (2) What rivers of North America resemble those 
of Africa in having rapids and falls that interfere with commerce? 

(3) Contrast the Mississippi River with the Nile. Make a drawing 
of each, showing the principal tributaries and towns. (4) Compare 
the Kongo with the Missouri in length; with the Amazon (Appendix 
II.). (5) Compare the area of Lake Victoria Nyanza with that of 
Lake Superior (Appendix II.). (6) Is Africa on the whole as well 
adapted to agriculture as is South America? Give your reasons. 
(7) Make a sketch map of the Atlantic and compare the position of 
Africa with that of South America. What part of America is in the 
same latitude as the Sahara? (S) Cape Horn is how much farther 
south than Cape of Good Hope? (9) Why is not a large part of 
northern South America a desert, like northern Africa? (10) Com- 
pare southern Africa with southern South America in products and 
importance. Why the difference? 

Suggestions. — (1) What per cent of the present population of 
the United States belongs to the negro race? (2) How T do the negroes 
compare with the Indians in their willingness and ability to adopt 
civilized customs? (3) Read the Bible story of Joseph in Egypt. 

(4) Read the story of Moses. (5) Find out some facts about the Pyra- 
mids. (6) Why is England especially benefited by the Suez Canal? 
(7) What obstacles are in the way of building railways across the 
Sahara to take the place of caravans? (S) Read about our short war 
with Tripoli in 1804. (9) Why was the southern point of Africa 
called the Cape of Good Hope? (10) Examine a diamond to see 
how it has been cut. (11) Find out something about missionary 
work in Africa. (12) What reasons can you give for sending mis- 
sionaries there? (13) Find out about the peculiar animal life upon 
the island of Madagascar. (14) Compare Madagascar with Cuba in 
regard to latitude, area, products, and people. (15) Find some facts 
about Livingston, Mungo Park, Stanley, and other African explorers. 
(16) Read one of the books of these explorers. You will find Du 
Chaillu's books on Africa very interesting. (17) Who were Bartholo- 
mew Diaz and Vasco Da Gama, and what part did they take in the 
discovery of the water route to India? (18) Find out about Kriiger 
and the British war with the Boers in 1900. 




Fig 



XXIII. AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 

Map Questions (Fig. 338). — (1) Judging from the railways and 
cities, which is the best-settled part of Australia? (2) Which part 
is least settled? (3) What reasons can you suggest for these facts ? 
(4) From the lakes and rivers what do you infer concerning the 
climate of the interior? (5) How does Tasmania compare in area 
with Pennsylvania? (Appendix II.). With your own state? (6) Make 
the same comparison for New Zealand. (7) Make a sketch of Aus- 
tralia to show the location of the several divisions. 

(8) Make a list of the island groups belonging to the United 
States ; to Great Britain ; Germany ; the Netherlands ; France. 
(9) Which country owns the greatest number? (10) What nations 
claim parts of Borneo? New Guinea? (11) Find the area of each 
of these islands (Appendix II.) and compare it with the area of your 
own state. (12) What must be the temperature and rainfall condi- 
tions in these islands? (13) What, then, about their products? 

Australia 

Physiography. — Australia lies apart from the rest of 
the world, an island continent in the water hemisphere 
and the only continent wholly in the southern hemisphere. 
Isolated for ages, its plants and animals differ (Fig. 34-t) 
from those in other parts of the earth (p. Q6~). With its 
area of nearly three million square miles, it approaches 
the United States or Europe in size. But it has been 
settled by Europeans so recently, and so much of its sur- 
face is desert (Fig. 338), that it is much less densely 
populated than the other continents. Much of the in- 
terior is practically unexplored, partly because of the 
desert and partly because of the absence of interior navi- 
gable waters. 

461 



462 



AUSTRALIA 



The surface, like that of Ireland, suggests a plate in 
form, since the low interior rises gradually to plateaus 




PHYSIOGRAPHY 463 

and mountains which often descend steeply toward the 
sea. While there are some low, short ranges in the in- 
terior, the highest land is in the east, where the mountains 
run parallel to the coast. In the southeast some of the 
peaks reach a height of over a mile. 

The mountains of eastern Australia, like the Appalachians 
of North America, are the worn-down remains of an ancient 
mountain system. Still further like the Appalachians, they 
served to check the extension of early settlements inland. 
Tasmania is really a continuation of the eastern highland, as 
Newfoundland is a continuation of the mountains of eastern 
North America. 

The streams which flow eastward to the Pacific, cascade 
down the mountains in short courses. Of the others in 
eastern Australia some end in the lakes of interior basins, 
and some evaporate in the dry climate; but many unite 
with the Darling and Murray rivers, which are at times 
navigable for long distances. During the dry summer 
season, however, all excepting the Murray may dwindle 
to mere chains of water holes. A wave-built bar at the 
mouth of the Murray closes it to ocean steamers, so that, 
unlike the Mississippi, no large cities have grown up along 
its banks. 

The coast line of Australia is so regular that for long dis- 
tances there are no good harbors ; but the sinking of the 
land in the southeastern part has caused some excellent 
ports. 

Off the northeastern coast is the Great Barrier Beef, the 
longest coral reef in the world. This has been built by coral 
animals, which still thrive there in great numbers. A few 
openings allow ships to enter the quiet channel between the 
reef and the land ; but navigation is not easy, and only an 
experienced pilot can avoid the dangerous shoals. Small sail- 



464 



AUSTRALIA 




Fig. 340. 

January isotherms for southeastern Australia - 
summer for that hemisphere. 



the e a st e r n 
highland has an 
abundant rain- 
fall on its sea- 
ward side and is 
clothed with 
dense forests. 
After crossing 
the mountains, 
however, the 
winds are so dry 
that the forest 
gradually disap- 
pears, changing 
first to open, 
park-like wood- 



mid- 



boats carrying 
divers and their 
assistants, usu- 
ally Malays, are 
engaged on this 
reef and the 
northern shores 
of Australia in 
fishing for pearls, 
pearl shell, and 
other products of 
tropical waters. 

Climate. — 

Since Australia 
lies within the 
belt of the south- 
east trade winds, 




Fig. 341. 
July isotherms for southeastern Australia — mid-win- 
ter for that hemisphere. 



CLIMATE 



465 



lands, then to grass-covered uplands, and finally to desert 
lowlands, still partly unexplored. The low interior moun- 
tain ranges cause only a slight rainfall which supplies the 
salt lakes of the interior. 

During the southern winter the interior becomes cold, 
and the heavy air presses outward toward the coast as 
cold land winds ; 
but during the 
summer the dry 
interior is so in- 
tensely heated 
that monsoon 
winds blow from 
the northeast and 
bring equatorial 
rain to the north- 
ern coasts. In 
this section are 
found areas of 
tropical forest. 
Southwestern 
Australia and 
Tasmania are 
reached by the 
prevailing west- 
erlies, with their cyclonic storms, which bring variable 
weather and rainfall, as in eastern United States. These 
rainy sections are also clothed with forests. 

It is therefore only along portions of the coast that 

there is enough rainfall for agriculture, while the interior, 

and much the greater part of the continent, is either arid 

or actual desert. Much of the interior is adapted to ranch- 

2h. 




Fig. 342. 
Eucalyptus forest in Australia. 



466 



AUSTRALIA 



ing, though some parts are even too arid for that ; but the 
southeastern coast, whose equable climate reminds us of 
the Mediterranean, will support a dense population. 

Plants and Animals. — Australian vegetation is not only 
peculiar, but also strikingly adapted to the climate of the 

country. In the interior, as in 
other desert regions, grass and 
flowering plants have gained the 
power to make rapid growth and 
to mature their seeds quickly, so 
that a few days after a rain the 
barren sands become carpeted with 
green as if by magic. 

Among the desert grasses, one of 

the most remarkable is the porcupine 

grass which grows on the sandy plains 

of the northwest interior, and is so 

hard, wiry, and spiny as to prevent 

passage through it. Plants with 

leaves which taste of salt also thrive 

here, being fitted for growth on plains 

that are too arid and alkaline for 

grass. These " salt bushes " are so valuable as forage for sheep 

and cattle that they are now introduced into the arid section of 

southwestern United States. 

The scrub trees that flourish in the arid interior have devel- 
oped a foliage able to resist evaporation. For example, the 
gum trees (Eucalyptus) hold their narrow leaf blades verti- 
cally with only the edges toward the sun's rays ; the leaves of 
wattles (Acacia) and other plants have shrunk to thorns ; and 
some trees secrete odorous oils which check evaporation. The 
leaves are too tough and leathery to wilt, and their dull greens 
give a sombre tone to the scattered woods. In these interior 
forests, which the settlers call " scrub," the thorny acacia and 




Fig. 343. 

Undergrowth in the Austral- 
ian forest. 



RABBIT 




PLATYPUS 



T«e M,N.Co, Buffalo. 



KANGAROO 



Fig. 344. 



Some Australian animals. The platypus lays eggs like a bird or reptile. The kanga- 
roo, like other marsupials, carries its unprotected young in a pouch. Where else 
have we found large running birds like the emu? 



468 



AUSTRALIA 



the close-set stems of the gum — rising to a height of a dozen 
feet — form a thicket through which a lost traveller may wan- 
der until death relieves his thirst. 

On the equable rainy slopes near the coast some of the gum 
trees are giants, in some cases four hundred feet in height. They 
rival the " Big Trees " of California, which also thrive where 
damp winds blow from the ocean. The undergrowth of the 
forest, which is almost tropical in character, includes tree ferns, 
palms, and orchids. These dense woods are called the " bush." 



We have already seen (p. 66) that the Australian animals 
are peculiar (Fig. 344). Describe some of them. State 

the reasons for their difference 
from animals of other continents. 
History. — When discovered, 
Australia was sparsely settled by 
blacks allied to the negroes of 
Africa, but differing from them in 
many respects. Of these savages 
it is estimated that about seventy 
thousand remain, of whom about 
a third still wander in the wild 
interior, scantily clad (Fig. 345), 
building the rudest of shelters, 
and gaining their living by hunt- 
ing. They still use that peculiar 
weapon, the boomerang (Fig. 346), 
which, when properly thrown, 
will fly in curves and even return 
to the thrower. 
Although for a long time it had been known that there 
was an Australian continent, settlements were not made 
there until 1778. Neither the country nor the products 




Fig. 345. 

An Australian savage. 

(See also Fig. 55.) 



PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT 



469 



were tempting to the early Spanish and Dutch explorers, 
and those nations colonized other lands of greater promise. 
It was not until the famous 
English navigator, Captain 
Cook, led an expedition 
to this southern continent 
that the fertile southeast- 
ern coast was discovered. 

For a while the distant 
land was used as a regular 
penal station to relieve the 
crowded condition of Eng- 
lish jails, and naturally free 
settlers came to the country 
slowly. But their number 
gradually increased, and, 
after long agitation, the 
transportation of criminals 
was stopped. 

Almost at the same time 
that gold was discovered 
in California it was also 
found in southeastern Aus- 
tralia, and tens of thousands 
of people rushed there to 
wash the sands for the 
precious metal. Since the 
miners needed supplies, 
many of the settlers turned their attention to other indus- 
tries, especially agriculture and grazing. Therefore in 
Australia, as in California, the gold mines led quickly 
to the development of the country's resources. 




Fig. 346. 
Australian boomerangs. 



470 



AUSTRALIA 




., J? PHILIPPINE 

mla\A 

«V.$3a ISLANDS 

o y.( \\ : PACIFIC 

^■S-ffC-Z, 5 "V--.«vN£W GUINEA 



OCEA N" 



^•' 



New South Wales, as the first colony was called, finally 
grew so large, and the settlements were so scattered, that 
it became difficult to control it under a single government. 

Consequently 
Tasmania, Vic- 
t o r i a , and 
Queensland 
were succes- 
sively set off as 
separate colo- 
nies. South Aus- 
tralia and West 
Australia, how- 
ever, were set- 
tled as distinct 
colonies. The 
several divisions 
Fig. 347. were at first COll- 

Density of population in Australia and neighboring trolled t>V mili- 
islands. 

tary governors 

sent from England ; but as the country became better 
developed, the colonies were granted more freedom, 
although still receiving governors from England. 

The colonies prospered under such popular government, 
each with its own laws, some having free trade, some 
imposing tariffs on goods imported from other colonies. 
Common interests, however, early awakened a desire for 
union ; and finally, on January 1, 1901, they were united 
to form the Commonwealth of Australia. This new com- 
monwealth has a government similar to that of Canada, 
and is independent of England in all matters excepting 
those which affect the British Empire as a whole. The 




ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 
Density of 
Population 

. . Less than 

□ 1 per Square Mile 
E3 1-25 per Sq. Mile. 
K^ 25-125 rer Sq. Mil 
^ 125-500 per Sq. Mile, 

11X1,00 
Inhabitants are shown. 

INDIAN 



OCEAN 

TASMANI 



SHEEP 



471 



population, which equals that of the United States when 
her Constitution was adopted, is rapidly growing. 

Nearly all the Australian settlers have come from the British 
Isles, and the unity of the race has led to a peaceful growth. 
As in England, education has been encouraged, church schools 
now being replaced by practically free, compulsory education 
in public schools. There are colleges at the capitals, and two 
important universities. The English love of outdoor sports is 
fully maintained, and great skill is naturally developed in a 
climate where it is possible to practise cricket, football, tennis, 
and rowing all the year round. 

Sheep Raising. — Although it was gold that brought 
population to Australia, her greatest wealth lies in her 
flocks of Merino sheep. 
Australian wool is the finest 
in the world. Sheep were 
first known in Asia, where 
doubtless they were origi- 
nally wild animals ; and the 
ancestors of the Merino 
were such as those tended 
by Jacob. From Asia the 
breed spread along the Med- 
iterranean and found in 
Spain a favorable, dry cli- 
mate. From this point flocks 
were taken to the early Dutch 
colony of South Africa and 

thence to Australia. The The last Tasmanian, a race now entirely 

Merino sheep had for cen- 
turies been carefully tended in Europe and separated 
from coarse-wooled varieties; and when it was found that 




Fig. 348. 



472 AUSTRALIA 

the climate and natural herbage of Australia really im- 
proved the quality of their wool, the English demand for 
that product led to a rapid development of the sheep- 
raising industry. It has now spread to the newly dis- 
covered pastures west of the mountains. 

In the early days of Australia the flocks were reared upon 
the unfenced government land, as in western United States. 
The sheep were driven to pasture and water, and cared for at 
night by lonely shepherds, much as in the days of David. 
But now the land is largely fenced with wire, each sheep 
station having its own " run " or ranch. The largest ranches 
contain fully a hundred thousand sheep, and employ men 
enough to make a little village, with a store, a church, and a 
school. As in Argentina, each run is divided into sections, or 
" paddocks" by wire fencing, so that the sheep of- different ages 
and conditions may be separated. The mildness of the cli- 
mate makes it unnecessary to provide winter protection for the 
animals, and now that the wild dogs have been exterminated, 
the sheep no longer need much care from shepherds. 

When warm weather begins, the sheep are gathered to the 
shearing sheds. Bands of skilled shearers go through the 
country, some starting in Queensland and following the season 
southward from station to station. With cleft use of clippers, 
they remove the fleece from a sheep in a few minutes. The 
fleeces are then carried by boys to sorting tables, where the 
wool is assorted according to quality and made ready for press- 
ing into bales for shipment. Formerly lines of wagons, laden 
with wool, toiled down to the seaports and brought back a 
yearly supply of food and clothing; but now railways and 
steamers aid in transportation, and small towns have developed 
as trade centres. 

During most of the year life at a sheep station is monotonous. 
At times horsemen run down the emu (Fig. 344) for sport, or 
hunt kangaroos with dogs. Since their introduction from 
Europe rabbits have so increased as to be a great pest because 



ANIMAL PRODUCTS 



473 



of the grass that they eat, and thousands of miles of rabbit- 
proof fence have been built to exclude them from good pasture 
land. Their rapid increase is due to the absence of natural 
enemies in this far-away continent. 

Animal Products. — To-day grazing is the characteristic 
and most important occupation in Australia. There are 




Fig. 349. 

A sheep run in Australia. The water in this artesian well rises from a layer 

of porous rock over six hundred feet helow the surface. 

over a hundred million sheep, and fully half the exports 
consist of wool ; but frozen or canned mutton and beef, 
together with tallow and hides, are also sent to England. 
Horses are bred for export, and cattle and swine are raised 
in large numbers. While the sheep graze in the arid 
interior, cattle are more numerous in the districts where 
there is heavier rain. Many cattle, especially near the 
coast, are raised for their dairy products, and butter is 
exported to England. At the season when the cows of 



474 AUSTRALIA 

Belgium and Denmark are stalled because of the cold, the 
dairy herds of New South Wales are feeding on fresh 
pastures. Explain the causes of the difference. 

Farming. — Since agriculture secures a larger return 
from the soil than grazing, sheep have been driven from 
the damp lowlands and from those portions of the plateaus 
where the rainfall is sufficient for crops. Even in the 
interior there is farming where irrigation is found possible. 
In some cases water is supplied from streams ; in others, 
from artesian wells (Fig. 349). Such wells are possible 
in a number of places where water exists in layers of 
porous rock beneath the parched plains. Upon boring to 
these layers, the water gushes forth for use. 

Wheat is the most important crop aside from hay, and 
enough is raised to place Australia twelfth among lands 
raising this grain. 

The farm products are distributed according to climate. 
For example, while oats and other hardy grains increase 
southward to Tasmania — since cold increases in that direc- 
tion — corn is important only from New South Wales north- 
ward. There are large sugar plantations on the warm coast 
of Queensland ; and in western Australia, where there are 
gold mines in the arid interior, much hay is raised for the 
animals employed at the mines. 

As in our Pacific states, fruits are an important product. 
They range from tropical varieties on the northern coast to 
oranges and other warm temperate fruits southward, and 
finally, in the highlands and in Tasmania, to the orchard and 
small fruits of the cool temperate lands. In Victoria and 
South Australia, vineyards for the production of wine are of 
importance. Some of this fruit raising is carried on by the 
aid of irrigation, as for instance in the Murray River Valley, 
where the water is supplied by the melting snows of the moun- 
tains. In what months would the snows melt there ? 



MINING AND MANUFACTURING 



475 



Mining. — The gold of Australia, like that of Cali- 
fornia, was first obtained from the gravels, and mines 
were later opened along 
the veins in the mountain 
rocks. Unlike the condi- 
tion in western United 
States, however, absence 
of water has prevented 
hydraulic mining on a 
large scale. Gold mining 
is still of great importance, 
Australia ranking second 
among gold -producing 
nations (Fig. 418). New 
deposits are discovered as 
the country is explored, 
the recent development 
of western Australia be- 
ing largely due to such 
discoveries. 

Copper mining greatly 
aided in the early develop- 
ment of South Australia, 
and rich copper mines are now worked in Tasmania. Silver 
and tin are other important mineral products. Coal is well 
distributed and of good quality. The best-developed field is 
near the coast of New South Wales, and some coal is exported. 
Eich iron ores, together with limestone, are found associated 
with these coal fields, and the mining and working of iron will 
follow with the growth of the country. 

Manufacturing. — Some wool is manufactured into cloth; 
some leather is tanned and made into shoes ; and much 
flour is made from the wheat. There are sawmills and 




Fig. 350. 
A gold mine in Australia. 



476 



AUSTRALIA 



planing mills; and other forms of simple manufacturing are 
carried on. But for the most part the raw products of Aus- 
tralia are shipped abroad to be manufactured. Most of these 
products go to England, and the commonwealth depends upon 
the mother country for most of its manufactured articles. 
Australia is passing from the pastoral to the agricultural 




Fig. 351. 
Sydney harbor. 

stage of her development, and the stage of extensive manufac- 
tures is yet to come. 

Cities. — Australian cities have grown very rapidly, 
and one-third of the people live in the capitals of the 
six colonies. Favored as the seats of government and. 
as seaports, and connected with the interior by govern- 
ment 'railways, these capitals have become the leading 
commercial centres. They are characterized by fine gov- 
ernment buildings, and by abundant provision of parks 
and gardens for the people. Their large suburbs afford 
homes for the workingmen and save them from the 
crowded life in tenement houses. 

Melbourne, the largest city in Australia and the capi- 



CITIES 477 

tal of Victoria, is beautifully situated at the head of a 
broad harbor. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, 
founded in 1788, and, therefore, the oldest city of Aus- 
tralia, is noted for its fine harbor (Figs. 351 and 352). 
At this point the coast faces deep water for a hundred 
miles; it consists of coves alternating with headlands 




Fig. 352. 
A view of a part of Sydney. 

and is dotted with fine residences set in park-like grounds. 
Both of these cities rank among the great seaports of the 
British Empire. Adelaide is a third large city. Of 
which division is it the capital ? Name the other capitals. 

Since nine-tenths of the Australians live on the coast lands, 
much of the commerce is carried on by means of steamboats, 
and most of the cities are seaports connected by rail with 
the interior farms, mines, and sheep country. A few mining- 
centres, like Ballarat and Be^digo in Victoria, have become 
large towns. Ballarat owes its growth partly to its trade as 
the centre of a fine farming and grazing country. 



ISLAND GROUPS 



Island Groups 



New Zealand. — More than a thousand miles southeast 
of Australia are the two large, mountainous islands of New 
Zealand. In the South Island there are great glaciers 
among the mountains, while in the North Island there 
are active volcanoes, and also hot springs and geysers, like 
those of the Yellowstone National Park. 

Since these islands lie in the course of the stormy 
westerlies, there is heavy rainfall on the western slopes. 
Therefore the mountains are clothed with forests of pine 
and other trees, with many kinds of ferns and tree-ferns 
beneath. On the lee or eastern slopes the rainfall is less, 
and the land is covered with wiry grasses. 

In the south the crops are those of the cool temperate 
belt ; but in the north the climate is mild enough for 
oranges. Can you. suggest how ocean currents may influ- 
ence the temperature of the north and south? (Fig. 38). 
What effect must the presence of water on all sides have 
upon the temperature ? 

New Zealand is so distant from other lands that few of the 
larger animals, excepting birds, have ever reached the islands. 
The native people, or Maoris, who must have come to the islands 
in boats, were a hardy, warlike race, living in protected villages, 
amidst cultivated fields. Their opposition to newcomers de- 
layed settlement by the English until a half -century after the 
founding of Sydney. They are now overpowered, and those 
that survive live mostly in the interior of the North Island. 
Many have so fully adopted civilized ways that they are allowed 
representatives in the legislature. 

As in Australia, pastoral industries take the lead. 
There are twenty million sheep, and frozen mutton and 



NEW ZEALAND 



479 



wool are exported to England. Cattle are likewise kept, 
and butter is exported. Agriculture is important, espe- 
cially in the districts of fertile volcanic soils on the North 
Island ; but much land that is suited to farming has never 
been cleared of forest. There are both gold and coal 
mines among the mountains ; and from their slopes are 
obtained valuable timber and a gum used for varnishes. 




Fig. 353. 
A view in New Zealand. 



Manufacturing is only slightly developed, and is chiefly 
for home use. 

Although the industries and life of this English colony 
resemble those in Australia, its interests are so different 
that they have prevented its joining the Australian fed- 
eration — just as the island colony of Newfoundland has 
declined to join the Dominion of Canada. The situation 
of these islands in the temperate zone is favorable to rapid 
progress ; and the vigorous immigrants from the British 
Isles have developed the resources wonderfully, and have 
established one of the best governments in the world, 



480 ISLAND GROUPS 

Many short lines of railway connect the settled interior 
with the seaports ; roads and stage lines extend to the 
more distant districts ; and steamers ply around the coasts 
and to distant countries. There are four prominent cities 
of nearly the same size, the smallest of which is Welling- 
ton, the capital, and the largest, Auckland, about as 
large as Duluth in Minnesota. 

The East Indies. — Between Asia and Australia are 
hundreds of islands, some very large, others so small 
that they find no place on our map. Of these the great 
majority have animals, plants, and people of Asiatic 
origin. New Guinea, however, which is nearest to Aus- 
tralia, bears a resemblance not to Asia but to Australia. 
It is, therefore, usually considered a part of Australasia, 
while the islands to the west and northwest are classed 
with Asia. 

New Gruinea, north of Australia, is one of the largest 
islands in the world, having an area equal to Texas and 
Pennsylvania combined. Although three times the size 
of New Zealand, it contains a smaller population, com- 
posed mainly of savages. This difference is due to its 
position in the torrid zone. The heavy tropical rainfall 
has clothed most of its surface with dense forests, so that 
the high mountain ranges and the unhealthful lowlands 
(Figs. 66 and 67) of the interior are almost unknown. 

While the islands farther west are overrun with Malays 
from Asia, the natives of New Guinea are Papuans (Fig. 60), 
resembling the native Australians. The animal life also 
resembles that of Australia, indicating that this island, like 
Australia, has long been separated from Asia. Former con- 
nection with Australia is further indicated by the fact that 
the two are now separated only by a shallow sea. 



THE EAST INDIES 481 

The three nations that claim New Guinea maintain only 
trading stations on the coast ; and the tropical forests, the 
fertile soils, and the minerals remain to be utilized in the 
future. 

The other islands have also a tropical climate, and are 
clothed with dense forests in which the elephant and 
rhinoceros, as well as other Asiatic animals, are still 
found. Most of the natives are Mohammedan Malays 
from Asia, but some of them are pagans. 

The Philippine Islands, which belong to the United 
States, are really a northern extension of the East Indies. 
What can you tell about them ? (p. 51G). 

Most of the other islands of this region, including 
Sumatra, Java, the Celebes, and a large part of Borneo 
and New Guinea, are Dutch colonies. What nation con- 
trols the island of Timor ? To which nation does north- 
ern Borneo belong ? Borneo, with a greater area than all 
the New England and Middle Atlantic states together, 
is one of the largest islands in the world. The immense 
size of these islands is indicated by the fact that Sumatra 
is larger than California, while Java has a greater area 
than New York State. 

All of the larger islands are mountainous ; in fact, they 
are parts of mountain ranges rising out of the sea, and 
among them are many active volcanoes, some of which 
have had terribly destructive eruptions. There are low- 
lands near the coasts, and many coral reefs skirting them. 
Indeed, a large number of the smaller islands are merely 
coral reefs slightly elevated above the ocean. 

Since they are so near the equator, and therefore have a 
heavy rainfall, these islands have tropical products. The 
forests supply valuable woods and gums, including gutta- 
2i 



482 



ISLAND GROUPS 




percha and camphor. Large areas, especially in Java, are 
highly cultivated and produce quantities of rice, sugar 
cane, and coffee. In the production of the last two 
articles Java is one of the leading regions of the world 
(Figs. 427 and 428). Among the noted products of the 

East Indies are spices, 
such as pepper, cloves, 
and nutmegs ; in fact, 
one of the island groups 
is known as the Spice 
Islands. What is the 
other name ? There 
are also valuable min- 
erals, including tin, 
gold, and precious 
stones ; and from the 
sea are obtained beau- 
tiful pearls and pearl' 
shells. 
The Dutch have been remarkably successful in manag- 
ing their East Indian colonies, which are a source of great 
wealth ; yet the larger islands are so mountainous, and 
the forests so dense, that great areas are scarcely known. 
The Dutch East Indies are fifty times as large as the 
Netherlands and have seven times as many inhabitants, 
or nearly half as many as in the United States. 

The largest city among these islands is Manila, in the 
Philippines ; and next in size is Batavia, the centre of 
the Dutch colonial government. 

Islands of the Pacific. — The map (Fig. 338) shows the west- 
ern Pacific dotted with island groups ; but these islands are so 
small that, although there are many hundreds of them, their 



Fig. 3'A. 

A native house in the Friendly (Tonga) 
Islands. 



ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 



483 



combined areas are little more than half that of New Zealand. 
They are the higher peaks of great mountain folds rising from 
the ocean floor. Many of them are volcanoes, others sub- 
merged peaks upon which corals have grown and formed coral 
islands. 

What names among them have you heard before ? To what 
nations do the groups belong ? Although under the control 
of these foreign 
nations, the local 
government is 
usually adminis- 
tered by native 
chiefs. 

Together these 
islands have a 
population of less 
than a million ; 
but the natives 
have been de- 
creasing in num- 
bers, partly be- 
cause of drunken- 
ness and disease 
following contact 
with Europeans. 
Although mis- 
sionaries have 
converted many to Christianity, others remain savages, and 
some even practise cannibalism. They are the best sailors of 
all the natural races, and in past centuries reached the islands 
in boats from Asia, going from group to group. 

There is a marked difference between life on the " low," or 
coral, and that on the " high," or volcanic, islands. Volcanic 
islands, like Fiji, whose peaks rise several thousand feet, are 
heavily forested on their rainy, windward slopes ; and their 
fertile soil encourages agriculture. Thus the coffee plantations 
of New Caledonia and the sugar plantations of Fiji recall the 









y& 








■ji | ^^ 






; 




: 














W$J0rJ>ffi 




. ■■■ - 








'.'.-. 






V - 






••^ErL^rL^r - :," 


¥ 






<-:■ 



Fig. 



A native village in the Fiji Islands. 



484 REVIEW QUESTIONS 

products of the volcanic Hawaiian Islands. As in Hawaii, 
also, bananas and pineapples are raised for home consumption 
and for export. 

On the low coral islands, on the other hand, the cocoa palm 
is the mainstay of human life, supplying food, clothing, shelter, 
boats, many utensils, and the means of trade as well. Copra, 
the main export from Samoa and from many of the Pacific 
islands, is the dried meat of the cocoanut, of value for its oil 
and as food. There is, of course, little mineral wealth in the 
volcanic and coral islands ; but in some of the islands, where 
mountain folds reach the surface, there are mineral deposits, 
such as the nickel found in New Caledonia. Among the coral 
reefs beautiful pearls are found. 

Review Questions. — Australia. (1) What about its position, area, 
and population? (2) Where are the mountains ? (3) What resem- 
blance is there to North America? (4) How do the streams vary in 
the several sections ? (5) What is the nature of the coast? (6) Tell 
about the Great Barrier Reef. (7) How does the rainfall vary in the 
different parts of Australia? Give the reasons. (8) What differences 
in plant life are thus caused? (9) What is the influence on indus- 
tries ? (10) Mention some of the ways in which the plants are adapted 
to their surroundings. (11) Tell about the forests. (12) What 
about Australian animals? (13) Tell about the natives. (14) Give 
reasons why Australia was not settled earlier. (15) AVhat finally led 
to rapid settlement and development? (16) Tell about the govern- 
ment: early condition; union of colonies; present condition. (17) 
Tell about sheep raising : the Merino sheep ; introduction to Aus- 
tralia; development of industry; care of the sheep ; shearing; trans- 
portation of wool; life on a sheep run. (18) W'hat are the animal 
products? (19) Tell about farming : water for irrigation ; principal 
products ; variation in crops according to climate. (20) What min- 
eral products are found? (21) What is the condition of manufactur- 
ing? (22) Why are the capitals so important? (23) Name and 
locate the three largest cities ; what can you tell about each ? (24) 
What about other towns? 

Island Groups. (25) Tell about New Zealand : its surface features ; 
climate ; native animals and people ; leading industries ; develop- 
ment; cities. (26) Tell about New Guinea: size; position; climate; 
people; animals; resemblance to Australia; resources. (27) What 



COMPARISONS AND SUGGESTIONS 485 

about the animals, plants, and people of the East Indies? (28) To 
what nations do the islands belong? (29) What about their size? 
(30) Tell about their physiography, climate, and products. (31) What 
about the success of the Dutch in the East Indies and the extent of 
their possessions there ? (32) Tell about the small island groups : 
their names; position; origin; government; people; products. 

Comparisons. — (1) Australia resembles South Africa in its sur- 
face, climate, occupations, and products. State how this is true. (2) 
Australia also resembles western United States in climate, in occupa- 
tion and products, and in the order of development of her resources. 
Describe these points of resemblance. (3) In what respects does 
southern South America (Chile and Argentina) resemble Australia? 
(4) What differences are there in climate due to difference in form 
of the two land masses? (5) What differences in the present condi- 
tion of development due to the history and the races of each ? (6) 
What part of Australia has the same latitude, in the southern hemi- 
sphere, that southern Florida has in the northern ? (7) Which of 
our states most nearly equals New Zealand in area ? (8) What pen- 
insula of Europe resembles New Zealand in shape ? How do the two 
countries compare in area? In population? (9) What advantages 
over Australia has the United States enjoyed in that it has attracted 
settlers from so many different nations? (10) What part of South 
America most resembles the East Indies in climate and products? 
Make the same comparison for North America. 

Suggestions. — (1) If it were within your power, how would you 
arrange the highlands of Australia so as to secure the most even dis- 
tribution of rain ? (2) Estimate the greatest length of New Zealand. 
(3) Estimate the distance from Batavia to Manila. (4) Write your 
impression of the climate of Melbourne in January ; in July. (5) 
Through some fruit dealer obtain a cocoanut in its husk and examine 
it. (6) Read Whittier's poem on the Palm Tree. (7) Learn some- 
thing about the work of missionaries in the small Pacific islands. 

(8) Collect pictures for the school, showing the islands and their life. 

(9) By what routes can one go from New York City to Australia? 
Through what waters? Which would be the shortest? About how 
many miles? (10) Answer the same questions for a voyage from 
New York to Manila. (11) Read in Tarr's "Elementary Geology" 
(pp. 251-256) about the origin of atolls. (12) Read about the erup- 
tion of Krakatoa (same book, p. 343) in the Sunda Strait, near Batavia. 




Fig. 363. 
Relief map of North America. 

( Modelled by E. E. Howell.) 




Fig. 356. 



West TO frou 



Greenwich 68^ 




Fig. 358. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 

Scale of Miles. 

75 loo 

Capitals of Countries: @ 
Capitals of States: ® 
Other Cities : • 
Canals 







D A 



8 V F E It x 



CENTRAL STATES 

Scale of Miles. 



25 50 75 100 



200 



-*' 



Cities with over 1,000,000: ... ClllCilSJO 

Cities with 500,000 to 1, 000,000:.. St.IiOUlS 

Cities with 200,000 to 500,000: Buffalo 

Cities with 50,000 to 200,000: Toledo 

Cities with 25,000 to 50,000: Lexington 

Smaller Places: Alpena 

Capitals with less than 25,000: . Charleston 
Capitals of States: ® Other Cities: • 



Sault Ste. p« ie S^- „ „^ ( 

■> /I ^hfelroysau 




/.Manistee 



&< 



West |V 
Bay Cityi^ ay CUy 



GreenSBay 

App etouV' ) O 

OshKoslwo Mpiitowoc 

'Lake Wiytffigo\J g u L ^ ; 
S Fond .F t^ 

dujLac I R) V ^* 

«VatLW Milwaukee Y«i ' ^a?" 1 HuI ° n 
idiso "\i/ Kacine l S to#^ si V4, 

Janesville\4 P ""i i Battle Creek I Detroit^/-* 

kford \ S ■" Kalamazoo " jacfsoii* Ann Arbor 



...Jio 

-0 I ^f Erie 






Hnd a r^HSSSv. JL>^Fort Wayn^gf ?E^ r4S^4 lu \Vs vUeW eny /x/ 

2 — LJ^SSSSr-k— — — — - _ i lima _ „... East %V-H ( X„ 4t t*llttrg / 



iLoganspovt^ l! «»} Mansfl eld' »> K I \\ ^ltt**" 

ia 1 y-^^ManoiNH c£_jH 1 Stei> beuv f UL 7V 

'Bloomingtoi >Wett. I | Ti ^~^^J^{\^$>\ 

O I S 1/^ ^Js^f! < Columttu* •^•, lUe I / t 

DWiUe.;:! Anderso^ .^, gp A„ field j| 

•BecLr f * D J %»H'I, /» ayt0n LniSnf'y. palW sh U r S 

4e.-re!iSute ( U/VfllBClBBat^o ^yj L(SJ^_ S V , 

jfidison-li N^TSlKioW-XjChileston /^ 
'U'East S/! Lo'uis ^/ — UJ (r . r . mlT iHe/' T) ^Vi.' SilSs> 'V"^A 1 -fV 

K^anifr . fc a V CvSa /§ 

illc/VyLOUlSVl)le i^xingto^ % ° ^ C , 



esburg 

I N 

Springfield 

5 . ® 

! Jacksonville 

. Alton 




BelTTeville 



t?/Evansvi 



!&' 




IkmL/ersoa ) •Q weus boro 

T^ammat/TJCgue 



pUucahVT'% Bow ling Green ^, 



West 89 fro n 




_^„ ;:,77 " ' ' . .>»' / r" 






il. 




Fig. 362. 



XXIV. REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 

Growth of the Continent. — Show the shape of North 
America by a drawing, and state its relative size (p. 548) 
among- the continents. The history of this continent 
covers millions of years, and only a few stages of its 









i__ 




/ 



Fig. 364. 

Model showing the distance which the Great Ice Sheet reached in the United 
States. (Model made hy E. E. Howell, Washington, D.C.) 

growth have received our attention. The period when 
coal was formed was one of the most important. Describe 
the process (p. 153). 

During that time, and afterward, the earth's crust was 
being folded in various places. The resulting mountain 

487 



488 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 

ranges have already been mentioned (pp. 96 and 99), 
and are indicated on Figure 363. State their arrange- 
ment (see also p. 96). 

At a later period the Great Ice Sheet spread over much 
of the surface (Fig. 364). Make a list of the states that 
it partly or wholly covered. Tell about the glaciers in 
Europe at this time and some of their principal effects 
(pp. 154-156). Mention similar effects in the New Eng- 
land and other states. 

Many changes have taken place in the coast line also. 
The sinking of the land in the northern part of the conti- 
nent, on both the eastern and western sides, has allowed 
the sea to enter the valleys and to form many bays and 
fine harbors. Between the valleys, where the land was 
higher, capes, peninsulas, and islands now rise above the 
sea. Give examples of such bays, capes, etc. (Fig. 356). 
The rising of the land, on the other hand, has elevated 
the level sea bottom and added coastal plains in the 
South. Thus a very regular coast line has been caused 
in that section. Even the whole of Florida is elevated 
sea bottom. What has been the effect of this rising 
upon harbors in the Southern States and in Mexico? 

The United States 

Physiography. — Find the Green Mountains in New Eng- 
land (Fig. 358). Find the White Mountains. Name the 
principal rivers in this group of states, and estimate the 
length of the longest. What is their general direction? 
The rivers of Neiv England flow through deep valleys cut 
in the plateau which they cross, and their courses are fre- 
quently interrupted by rapids and falls caused by the 



THE UNITED STATES 



489 



s\iVuS 




glacier. New England is, therefore, a region of excellent 
water power. 

The New England mountains are continued on the south- 
west by the Appalachians. In what states are portions 
of these mountains included ? 
(Fig. 357). In what state are 
the Adirondacks and the Cats- 
kills? (Fig. 359). 

On the eastern side of the 
Appalachians is the low Pied- 
mont Plateau (Fig. 366), where, 
as in New England, ancient 
mountains have been worn down 
to a hilly upland. It is bordered 
on the east by the level Coastal 
Plains (Fig. 366), whose loose 
sands and clays are so 
softer than the rocks of the 
plateau that the streams, in de- 
scending from the plateau, are 
marked by numerous rapids and falls. This greatly influ- 
ences the location of cities. Why ? Name the principal 
cities on this fall line (Fig. 365). 

Name the chief rivers that enter the Atlantic between 
New England and Florida. Which of them cross the 
entire mountain system ? What influence has the fact of 
their crossing the mountains had upon westward migra- 
tion? Why are there such large bays at the mouths of 
these rivers? (p. 488). Why not at the mouths of those 
farther south ? 

On the western side of the Appalachian Mountains is 
the Appalachian Plateau (Fig. 366), which slopes gently 



Fig. 365. 

much The fall line. Coastal plains 
dotted, Piedmont and other sec- 
tions left white. Cities printed 
in heavy type are located along 
the fall line. 



490 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



toward the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Like the plateau 
of New England, it has been very deeply cut by rivers. 
Name several of them. Since the nearly horizontal strata 
of sandstone, shale, etc., contain beds of coal, these deep 
river valleys have been of great value in bringing the coal 
to light, especially in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. 





Fig. 366. 

Physiographic map of the United States, giving the names of the principal 

mountains, plateaus, and plains. 

Which of the Middle Atlantic States has a large number 
of lakes and waterfalls? Why? (p. 488). 

Most of the vast area between the Appalachian plateau 
and the Rocky Mountains is level land sloping gently 
from both sides toward the Mississippi. The prairies 
(Fig. 366) of this section rise gradually west of the 
Mississippi until they merge into the Great Plains, 
which continue to the very base of the Rockies. At this 
point the Great Plains reach an elevation of over a mile, 



THE UNITED STATES 491 

and are therefore much higher than most parts of the 
eastern mountains. What interruption of this great area 
of plains is found in Missouri? (Fig. 366). Near Lake 
Superior? (Fig. 366). In South Dakota? (Fig. 361). 

Through or bordering what states does the Missouri 
River flow ? The Ohio ? The Mississipin ? Draw the 
Mississippi system, inserting the names of the principal 
tributaries (Fig. 357). Which of the Central States 
(Fig. 361) do not belong entirely to the Mississippi 
basin ? Make a drawing of the Grreat Lakes showing the 
states that border them. 

Estimate the width of the land area west of the Rocky 
Mountains. A large part of this space is occupied by a 
plateau, having the Rocky Mountains on the east and the 
Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains on the west (Fig. 
366). Point out these mountains on Figure 362. What 
river is in the northern part of this plateau? In its 
southern part? What lake is there in its middle portion ? 
Find the Great Basin (Fig. 366). What about the rivers 
of this basin? (Fig. 362). 

West of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade system are nar- 
row lowlands including the fertile valley of California 
and that occupied by Puget Sound in Washington (Fig. 
362). Still west of these valleys, and rising abruptly 
from the sea, is a third system of mountains called the 
Coast Ranges. Make a cross-section drawing of the 
United States, showing the greater elevations of land. 

Some of the loftiest peaks in the Far West are not due to the 
folding of the earth's crust, but to volcanic action. Mt. Shasta 
in northern California is an example. Can you name others ? 
The soil in hundreds of thousands of square miles has been 
formed by the decay of volcanic rock ; and much of the seen- 



492 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



ery of the Far West, including the hot springs and geysers of 
the Yellowstone National Park, bears evidence to the former 
existence of volcanoes. What can you tell about geysers ? 

Climate. — The factors determining the temperature of 
any country were enumerated on page 41. What are they? 
How must the temperature of the Central Plains differ from 




Fig. 367. 
A map to show the rainfall of the United States in inches. 

that of the Rocky Mountains, as a result of the influence of 
altitude ? How must the temperature of the coast differ 
from that of the interior ? Why ? 

A general statement of the great wind belts which influ- 
ence North America is given on pages 26-28, and they are 
shown graphically in Figure 25. Name these belts. Fig- 
ures 38 and 39, together with the accompanying text, 
explain the ocean currents that approach our shores. 
Describe them. The effects of these winds and ocean 






TEE UNITED STATES 



493 



currents upon our western coast and interior are stated on 
pages 160 and 161 (see also Fig. 29). The nature and in- 
fluence of cyclonic storms are discussed on pages 38 and 39. 
Recalling these various facts, explain the isotherms for 
North America in Figures 36 and 37. Figure 367 shows 



Ef \y\'m IIsT u5 ili iff 




Fig. 368. 
Map showing the regions from which much timber is now being obtained. 

the rainfall for the United States. Give the reasons for 
the differences in rainfall. 



Industries 

Lumbering. — Figure 368 shows the main parts of the 
United States in which lumbering is now carried on. 
Name the sections ; also the kinds of trees and some of 
the principal animals (see also p. 68). Why do the larg- 
est trees grow on the western coast? (p. 468). Besides 
lumber, tannic acid for tanning leather is obtained from 
these forests; also turpentine ; and wood pulp for the manu- 



491 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



facture of paper. How is maple sugar obtained ? Recall 
some of the facts about lumbering in different sections. 

Most of the cities of Maine are engaged in handling 
lumber. Bangor is the most important port for its ship- 
ment ; Portland has 
lumber mills, etc. ; and 
Bath is noted for its 
shipbuilding. There is 
also manufacturing of 
doors, blinds, and other 
articles of wood in many 
New England cities, as 
Burlington, Vt. Paper 
mills are found along 
the rivers of Maine, 
New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, Wisconsin, Min- 
nesota, and other states. 
Holyoke, Mass., is a 
centre for making paper 
from rags. 

, In the South, Georgia 
pine is shipped from 
Charleston, Savan- 
nah, Jacksonville, 
Mobile, and smaller 
ports. Memphis is a centre for hard wood ; and the 
manufacture of doors, blinds, furniture, etc., is exten- 
sively carried on in Atlanta, Montgomery, Mobile, 
Chattanooga, Nashville, Little Rock, and many 
smaller places. 

The lumber business is also important in many of the 




Fig. 369. 
Sections where ocean fish are found. 



THE UNITED STATES 



495 



Central States. The water power at Minneapolis has 
long been used for sawmills; and the excellent position of 
Duluth and Superior for shipping lumber by lake, has 
given rise to an important lumber industry at these points 
also. Many cities within easy reach of the northern for- 
ests are engaged in the manufacture of furniture and other 
articles of wood. This is true, for example, of Chicago, 
of Lacrosse and Oshkosh, Wis., and of Saginaw, Bay 
City, and Grand Rapids, Mich. 



Iowa 


Illinois 


Missouri. 


Texas 




$•58,649,966 
Z54999.850 




$49989,951, 
199.9 J 9,8 10 




$41,777501 
151,73 1,486 


$35,^14,478 
105,336, 700 


$34,926,02 7 
158,754,666 













Fig. 370. 

Corn production, in dollars and in bushels, in the five leading corn-prod uciug 

states. 

Tacoma and Seattle owe much of their importance 
to their great sawmills and planing mills ; and Portland, 
Oregon, also has extensive lumber industries. Locate these 
various places on the maps (Figs. 358—362). 

Fishing. — Figure 369 represents the products obtained by 
fishing on our eastern coast. Make a list of the different kinds 
and state the general distribution of each. Gloucester, Bos- 
ton, and Portland are important in this industry, and Bal- 
timore and Norfolk are centres for the oyster trade. Immense 
numbers of salmon are canned along the Columbia River near 
Portland, Oregon, and in western Canada and Alaska. 

Agriculture and Related Manufacturing. — Among agri- 
cultural products by far the most valuable is com. Figure 



496 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 




legend: 
I Considerable Corn Raised 
I Greatest Corn Raising Section 



Fig. 371. 
On these maps the spaces left hlank indicate either little or no production. 




Fig. 372. 



THE UNITED STATES 



497 



371 represents the corn districts. Note that the Southern 
States produce a large amount. Why is there so little in 



New York. 



$49.^8 1,667 
6fi09,B99 


Pennsylvania 


lenva. 


California. 




$33,767,SI7 
3.890.439 


$Z8/rZ3,063 
6,711,309 


$Z4.-M-4,89t 
2.716.099 


Ohio 


$16,3 7H861 
Xfi/Q97a 




, 











Fig. 373. 
Hay production, in dollars and tons, in the five principal hay-producing states. 

the Far West ? What is the rank of the five leading states 
in this cereal? (Fig. 370). Enumerate the uses to which 




legend: 
I Considerable Wheat Raised 
I Greatest Wheat Raising District 



Fig. 374. 



corn is put. How does the area for oats (Fig. 372) com- 
pare with that for corn ? Note the leading states for hay 
(Fig. 373). Does Figure 374 show wheat to be more, or 



498 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



less widely distributed than corn ? Why should it be ? 
Which of the Western States must rely upon irrigation 



't-Z.34S.67Z 
73.4! 79/ Z 




Kansas 



$320-68.706 
64939.41Z 



North Dakota. 



$Z8,383,767 ] 

S3,QS4jtjr 



Indiaria. 



$2.7.7&60SS. $Z4Z08398 
4ZJ03LI73 | 36,426.029 



Fir. 375. 

Wheat production, in dollars and bushels, in the rive leading wheat-producing 

states. 

for raising wheat ? Name the five leading wheat states in 
the order of their rank (Fig. 375). How does the value 

Wyoming 




Fig. 376. 
Number of sheep aud their value in the five leading sheep-producing states. 

of hay in the five states that lead in its production compare 
with that of wheat in the five principal wheat states ? 



IUinois 


Iowa 


New York. 


Ohio. 




$40,437,934 
IP03.2.99 






Pennsylvania 






^W 


$3 7.686 366 


$34,634,083 


$Z9.7 97,0 46 


$2.9,390,338 


"^^f^Xfe: 


981,33'Z 


3-96.738 


633.499 


348.747 


r^Pli 





















Fig. 377. 
Number of horses and their value in the five principal horse-producing states. 



THE UNITED STATES 



499 



Excepting in the northwest, — that is, north of central 
California near the Pacific coast, — most of the country west 
of the 100th meridian is too arid for agriculture without 
irrigation. This, therefore, is our great grazing region. 

Iowa. 

1 Tf.Y/7.% 

Kansas 



3,4-1 4,3S9 




•r>i^ii 



$93,309,98S 

3234699 



f 77,4 08,3 i 3 
2,736,9 46 



Illinois 



$70,7J9,6Z6 

2,266,278 



NewYortc. 



$64,12.8,379 
Z.0/9,328 



Fig. 378. 
Number of cattle and their value in the five principal cattle-producing states. 

Which of our states produce most sheep? (Fig- 376). 
Which eastern state surpasses all others in number of 
sheep ? Large numbers of horses are raised in the ranch 
country ; but Figure 377 shows that the five leading 

New York 

Pennryhantet 




Iowa. 



\366,906,4e0 



Fig. '379. 
Five principal milk-producing states. 

states in the production of horses are farther east. Do 
Figures 372 and 373 suggest a reason for this? Name 
the five leading states for cattle (Fig. 378). No one of 
these states is altogether in the ranch country, although 
the second and third are semi-arid in their western part. 
Note the principal m7&-producing states (Fig. 379). To 
what extent are these states the same as those in Fig- 
ure 373 ? What resemblance do you find between the five 



500 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



states producing most corn (Fig. 370) and the five produc- 
ing the largest number of hogs? (Fig. 380). Why? 



Iowa. 


Missouri 


Ohio 


Winois 




$l9,S90.aOO 
3,408, Z8I 

2?> . .. <*r. " =/S "~.. 


Texas. 




$lt,5J2J6t 
K307.0&J 


JU077J89 

*J>08.26J 


$$376306 
2,634.987 











Fig. 380. 
Number of hogs and their value in the five principal hog-produciug states. 

These various agricultural products are of immense 
importance in the great shipping and manufacturing 
centres. Name the five chief shipping points along the 
Great Lakes (Fig. 357-). Make a list of the five largest 
cities on the Mississippi River and its tributaries ; the 
five largest on the eastern coast ; the three largest on the 
western coast. Arrange these in the order of their popu- 
lation (see table, p. 552). Which are included among the 
twelve largest cities in the country? (see table, p. 551). 

Omaha, Kansas City, St. Louis, and Chicago are 
noted markets for live stock and grain. Why these in par- 
ticular ? Besides sending these products eastward, they 
pack a great amount of meat and mill much flour. In the 
southwest the shipping points for western cattle are 
Dallas and Fort Worth in Texas. 

Minneapolis, Milwaukee, Toledo, Evansville, 
and Nashville are noted for flour. Both brewing and 
distilling, which require grain, are important industries in 
a number of the cities of the Central States, the former 
especially at Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, 
the latter at Louisville and Peoria. 

Nearly all the cities in the fertile Central States are 



THE UNITED STATES 



501 



engaged in industries connected with the products of the 
region. For example, Columbus and Indianapolis 
handle grain and manufacture farming implements ; and 
Dayton is noted for its manufacture of farm machinery. 
These and other cities of this section are trade centres, 
supplying the towns, villages, and farms with needed 
implements and other articles. Notice, for example, the 
number of large towns along the Mississippi and Missouri 
rivers and their larger tributaries. Besides those already 
mentioned some of the largest are St. Paul, St. Joseph, 
and Des Moines. Find others. 

Many of the products of the Central States are sent 
east for consumption or for manufacture. For ex- 
ample, hides are 
shipped to tan- 
neries in the 
central and east- 
ern states ; and 
the leather then 
goes to the fac- 
tories at Lynn 
and Brockton, 
Mass., Roches- 
ter, N.Y., and 
elsewhere, to be 
made into boots and shoes. Leather goods are also made in 
the cities of the middle west, as, for example, in St. Louis. 

Observe the extent of the cotton belt (Fig. 381) and the 
rank of the principal cotton-producing states (Fig. 382). 
New Orleans, Memphis, Atlanta, and numerous other 
southern cities are important cotton markets. What sea- 
ports must ship a large amount of cotton ? Of late cotton 




Fig. 381. 



502 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



manufacturing has been rapidly increasing in the South ; 
and among the cities which are extensively engaged in 
manufacturing cotton goods and cotton-seed oil are 



Texas. 


Mississippi 


Georgia 


Alabama 




2,3 22,408 

Bale* 


S.Carvlma 


IJM.77/ 


t,3S0J8l 


1J1260I 


1030,083 











Fig. 382. 
Five principal cotton-producing states. 



Columbia and Greenville, S.C., Charlotte, N.C, and 
Augusta, Columbus, and Atlanta, Ga. Texas manu- 
factures little, although nearly every Texan city is impor- 
tant for cotton. Name and locate several of the largest. 



Cuba 



1664,862,000 
Pounds 




Louisiana 



ffawaiian. 
Islands 



435,000,000 


PRica 







PortoRico. 10,000,000 



Fig. 381 



Principal sugar-producing districts in the United States and its dependencies; 
also including Cuba. 

Of the southern cotton much is sent to New England, 
which is even more busily engaged in cotton manufactur- 
ing than the South. Many of the cities of southern Maine 
and New Hampshire, as well as many in Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, New York, and other states, are engaged in 
the manufacture of cotton or woollen p-oods or both. 



THE UNITED STATES 



503 



Among these 
are Philadel- 
phia Pa., Fall 
River, Low- 
ell, La w- 
rence, New 
Bedford, and 
Taunton, 
Mass. ; Provi- 
deice and 
Pawtucket, 
Pv. I. ; Man- 
chester, N.H.; 
Lew t iston, Me.; 
and U t i c A, 
N.Y. 

Fig. 384. 

Note the rank 
of Louisiana in the production of sugar and sugar cane (Fig. 
383). Naturally there are many sugar refineries in New Or- 
leans. In what 





section is rice cul- 
tivated? (Fig. 
432). Name the 
chief tobacco 
states (Fig. 384). 
Richmond, Lou- 
isville, and St. 
Louis are our 
principal tobacco 
markets, while 
Lynchburg and 
Danville, Va., 

and Raleigh and Durham, N.C., are extensively engaged in 

tobacco manufacture. 



Fig. 385. 



504 



REVIEW OF NORTH- AMERICA 



What are our chief kinds of fruits, and in what sections are 
they raised ? (Fig. 385). Much of the prosperity of Los 
Angeles, Cal., is dependent upon the fruit raised in its vicinity 
by the aid of irrigation. To the use of irrigation is also due 
the fruit and other agricultural industries near Salt Lake 
City, Utah. Near the shores of the Great Lakes immense 
quantities of grapes, apples, pears, and other fruits are raised. 
Why near the Great Lakes ? Kochester, JST.Y., is a noted 




Fig. 386. 

centre for the nursery business, which is important in the fruit 
country. Canning is another great industry connected with 
fruit, as, for example, at Baltimore and Wilmington. Why 
there ? 

Mining and Manufacturing Dependent upon Mining. — 
Coal and iron are the most important minerals for manu- 
facturing. Tell about their distribution (Figs. 386 and 
389). What is the rank of the leading states in each 
product ? (Figs. 387 and 388). In regard to coal in Penn- 



THE UNITED STATES 



505 



Pennsylvania. 



$116,763,473 

W7,029,6J4^ 

, ,_ Tora. , W, 

£.1 p ri pn r'CKi 



nl <$W7ZJZ9 \$SIS3SA09 
{ Ze.0 7i.TJS a (l2,tS6,94Z 




^0,93 7.3 93 
t+,2.t&lJ9 ' 



\$S,SLI9,J03 



sylvania, see page 183. The neighboring states of Mary- 
land, West Virginia, and Ohio have extensive deposits of 
bituminous coal. What 
about the coal in the 
states farther west ? 
(Fig. 386). 

Owing to special ad- 
vantages mentioned on 
pages 183-184, Pennsyl- 
vania is distinguished 
for the manufacture of 
iron and steel goods. 
Philadelphia manufactures cars, steel ships, and many 
other articles of iron. Pittsburg and Allegheny make 
iron and steel goods of nearly every description ; and in 
Scranton, Reading, Harrisburg, Erie, and a score of 

other cities there are 



Fig. 387. 

Coal production, in dollars and tons, in the 
five leading coal-producing states. 



Michigan. 



$B,34 761S 




Minn. 



Ala 



VaPa. 

CD 



- *• 5L,09a,Qi.1 

$974,031 

ut.iza 

$8 <77,079 
7Z3,74Z 



Va 
Fa 



Fig. 388. 



furnaces, foundries, and 
machine shops for iron 
manufacturing. 

Neighboring states 
also enjoy the benefit 
of the abundant coal of 
this region. . In New 

Iron ore production , in dollars and tons, in the Jersey, NEWARK, JER- 
five leading iron ore-producing states. ,-, ^ i 

b f & sey City, Camden, and 

Hoboken manufacture iron goods. New York City does 
the same, and there is iron manufacturing at Buffalo, 
Rochester, Syracuse, Albany, Troy, and many other 
New York cities. Wilmington, Del., like Philadelphia, 
is noted for its cars and steel ships ; and Baltimore, 
Wheeling, W.Va., and Roanoke, Va., carry on iron and 



506 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



steel manufacturing. What is the rank of Virginia among 
iron-producing states ? (Fig. 388). 

For reasons stated on page 184, the iron ore of the Lake 
Superior region is transported to distant cities, even as far 
as the cities of Pennsylvania, for manufacture. Boats with 
ore leave the lake ports of Duluth, Superior, Ashland, 
and Marquette for cities all along the Great Lakes, 




Fig. 389. 
Leading iron, copper, oil, and gas producing regions. 

especially those which can easily secure coal. Some of 
these cities draw upon the Pennsylvania coal fields; others 
obtain coal from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Among the 
lake cities which receive Lake Superior iron are Chicago, 
Cleveland, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, and To- 
ledo. But many others, both on the lakes and at a dis- 
tance from them, are partly or wholly supplied with iron 
for manufacture from the Lake Superior region, the most 
productive iron field in the world. 



THE UNITED STATES 507 

New England also consumes much iron, manufacturing 
especially such articles as are light and require much 
skill. Why ? Many of the smaller places are engaged 
in such work, and among the larger cities Boston, 
Worcester, Springfield, Hartford, New Haven, 
and Bridgeport make many kinds of articles of metal, 
including wire, machinery, hardware, firearms, cartridges, 
bicycles, sewing machines, etc. 

In Alabama, as in Pennsylvania, both coal and iron are 
found ; and at Birmingham, which has both minerals 
near at hand, the iron and steel industry is extensive 
(p. 184). Atlanta, Knoxville, and Chattanooga also 
have iron industries. We have already seen that many 
cities in the Central States are engaged in iron manufac- 
turing, since they make farming implements ; and many 
other forms of iron goods receive their attention. In the 
Far West there is less manufacturing ; but Pueblo, 
Colo., has large iron works. 

In some sections natural gas is used as a fuel in place 
of coal ; for example, in the neighborhood of Pittsburg 
in the manufacture of glass. On Figure 389, point out 
the leading oil and gas districts. Name other products 
than kerosene that are obtained from petroleum. 

What states produce copper? (Fig. 389). Michigan, in 
the neighborhood of Calumet, has very large copper 
mines; and at Butte, Mont., more copper is mined than 
in any other district in the world. Name the cities in 
southern Arizona (Fig. 362) near the copper-producing 
region (Fig. 389). 

Lead and zinc are other important metals. Many of the 
silver ores of the Far West yield lead, as, for example, at 
Leadville, Colo. Both lead and zinc are found in several of 



508 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



the Central States, one of the leading districts being at Jop- 
lin", Mo. Much zinc is used for mixing with copper to form 
the alloy brass. Waterbury, Conn., is an important centre for 
the manufacture of brass goods. 

How widely distributed are the gold and silver mines ? 
(Fig. 390). Name the principal states for each metal in 
the order of their rank (Figs. 391 and 392). Denver 




Fig. 390. 
Gold and silver producing regions indicated by crosses. 

owes much of its importance to the numerous mining 
towns in its vicinity. Why ? One of the best known is 
Cripple Creek ; Leadville is another. Some of this 
metal is sent to eastern cities, such as Providence, to 
be used in the manufacture of jewellery, etc. ; but large 
quantities go to the government mints to be coined for 
use as money. 

Compare the value of the precious metals (Figs. 391 and 
392) with that of hay (Fig 373). With that of cattle 



THE UNITED STATES 



509 



(Fig. 378). Which of the products shown in these various 
diagrams has the greatest total value ? 

Besides the mineral products mentioned, there are others of 
great importance. For example, salt is found in New York, Michi- 



Colorada 



$79,7 04,2.0a 




PANNI^C J _GQLD — 



California. 



■$74,6 78,300 
70 7,7 60 



SDaJcota Mnntonn 



13.69^,900 
2.73,497 



$1,373,400 
277363 



$2,S76,100 
W 3,983 



Fig. 391. 
Gold production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading gold-producing 

states. 

gan, Kansas, and other states. Phosphates are obtained at 
Charleston, S.C., and in Florida. Clays for bricks and tiles 
occur in many sections, one of the most noted being the Hud- 
son Valley above New York ; but the finer pottery clays are 



Colorado. 



$ 17,97 4-.33S 
27,636,4*00 




Mo/liana. 



$10,257,487 
7 3,66 7,9 00 



Utah. 



$8JOO,9 78 
6,263600 



Idaho 



$6,336,903 
H9 07.2.00 



j 2.,Z39flOO 



Fig. 392. 

Silver production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading silver-producing 

states. 

less common, one of the most important centres being Tren- 
tox, N. J. Building stones of one kind or another are quar- 
ried in every state ; but Ohio, Indiana, and other Central States 
produce sandstone and limestone especially; the New England 
States granite; the neighborhood of Py,utland, Vt., marble; 
and Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maine slate. 



510 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



Manufacturing. — The great industries supplying raw 
products are seen to be lumbering, fishing, agriculture, graz- 
ing, and mining, of which agriculture is the most impor- 
tant. Manufacturing, a sixth great industry, is seen to 
be directly related to these products. Our cities are 
largely engaged in manufacturing, and have so many 




Distribution of Principal Cities 

and Towns of the 
i United States. 

SCALE OF MILES, 



0, 100 200 200 100 



Fig. 393. 
The star shows the centre of population of the United States. 



kinds that a mere list of them would occupy many pages. 
A number of the cities are noted especially for one kind 
of manufacture, as Paterson, N.J., for silk; Troy, 
N.Y., for shirts, collars, and cuffs ; Syracuse, N.Y., for 
the works in which soda is made from salt ; Brockton, 
Mass., for shoes ; Fall River, Mass., for cotton goods, 
etc. But some of these cities have other important manu- 
factures ; and the larger commercial cities make scores of 
very different classes of articles. For example, Boston 




so^iij-,/ " /s ATLANTIC 



OCEAN 

Transcontinental 
Railroads in 

UNITED STATES 

and adjacent portions of 

NORTH AMERICA. 



\MEX 



J^^^^ ? \^--o 



Transcontinental Railroads thus : , r ■ 

Other Railroads thus ; 

Standard Time Divisions thus : + ■*■ + + + +■ 
Connecting Steamship Lines thus: 



Scale of Miles. 
100 300 300 400 600 




J4. 



THE UNITED STATES 511 

and its suburbs, which include the large cities of Cam- 
bridge and Somerville, manufacture almost every kind 
of article that can be named. 

Commerce. — In connection with the production of raw 
materials and with manufacturing there must be much 
trade and transportation of goods, or commerce. More 
than half of our people are occupied in providing raw 
products and hence live in country districts, while the 
cities are mainly concerned with manufacturing and com- 
merce. Give several examples showing the interdepend- 
ence of country and city districts. According to Figure 
393, in what quarter of the United States are most of our 
cities found? Our railways? (Fig. 394). 

In the table (p. 551) you will find a list of the twenty-five 
largest cities. Locate each and tell what you know about it. 
Which of these cities is nearest your home ? In what section 
of the country is the greatest number ? Why ? Which are on 
the sea-shore ? Which are on the Great Lakes ? Which are on 
navigable rivers ? (Fig. 396). Which are not on navigable waters ? 

Name and locate our great cities along the Atlantic seaboard. 
They are not only manufacturing centres, but also eastern gate- 
ways to and from the interior, as Seattle, Tacoma, Portland, 
and San Francisco are gateways on the western side. 

Some of the reasons why New York is the largest city 
of all are stated on page 123. What are they ? Trace 
the route of the New York Central Railway (Fig. 395) 
and the Erie Canal to Lake Erie (Fig. 359). Name the 
principal cities on this route. There are other railways 
from New York to Buffalo (Fig. 395), and these con- 
nect with lines that extend to Chicago and the West. 
The importance of Buffalo as a shipping point is further 
increased by the fact that Niagara Falls have made it the 



512 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 

eastern terminus of much of the lake traffic. Since the 
Welland Ship Canal (Fig. 359) now permits lake boats to 
pass from the Great Lakes clown the St. Lawrence, why 
does not Montreal rival New York in importance ? Bos- 
ton has excellent railway connections with Albany and 
the West, but it is much smaller than New York. Why ? 

Name the chief cities along the Great Lakes between 
Buffalo and Duluth. Considering the raw materials at 
hand, what shipping and manufacturing industries must 
be prominent in these cities ? Taking Cleveland, for 
example, state clearly the advantages of its location for 
securing raw products needed in manufacturing, and 
for shipping manufactured articles. In what respects 
are Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee favorably 
located ? 

In Figure 394 note that from Duluth, Minneapolis, 
and St. Paul two trunk lines of railway, the Great 
Northern and the Northern Pacific, extend to the Pacific 
coast. In what cities do they terminate ? What states do 
they cross ; and what cities have you studied that are 
situated on or near them ? 

Philadelphia and Baltimore, like Boston and New 
York, also have excellent connection with the West, by 
lines running through Pittsburg, Columbus, Indian- 
apolis, and Cincinnati to Chicago and St. Louis (Fig. 
395). From the two last cities two other trunk lines, — 
the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, and the Union 
Pacific, which connects with the Southern Pacific and the 
Oregon Short Line, — -have been built to the Pacific coast 
(Fig. 394). Through what states and large cities do they 
pass ? Note the number of trunk lines extending to Den- 
ver and other Colorado cities ; several of these connect 




THE M.-N.CO 



Fi 



TUE UNITED STATES 



513 



with the Denver and Rio Grande, which also has connec- 
tions to the Pacific. 

The principal railways running south from New York, 
Philadelphia, and Baltimore necessarily extend parallel to 
the Appalachians (Fig. 395). But several of them wind 
about the southern end of these ranges to the west and 




Fig. 396. 

Navigable rivers represented by heavy lines. 

northwest, making the " Gate City," Atlanta, an impor- 
tant railway centre. Chattanooga and Nashville are 
other important railway centres in the South. Notice 
(Fig. 395) that Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louis- 
ville, and other large cities in the interior are connected 
by trunk lines with New Orleans and other southern cities. 
At New Orleans the southern roads connect with another 
transcontinental line, the Southern Pacific, which extends 
from New Orleans to Los Angeles, San Francisco, and 

2 L 



514 



BEVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



Portland. Name the states and chief towns along that 
route. Find Oakland (Fig. 362) which is the terminus 
of railways leading to San Francisco, much as Jersey 

City and Ho- 
boken are of 
railways leading 
to New York. 

It is evident 
that the main 
railways of the 
United States 
extend east and 
west. On the 
other hand, Fig- 
ure 396 shows 
that the princi- 
pal navigable 
rivers flow 
southward. 
Name them. 
Why should not 
our principal 
railways like- 
wise run north 
and south ? 
Government. — All together there are forty-five states in 
our Union, besides four territories (Arizona, Indian Ter- 
ritory, New Mexico, and Oklahama), the District of Co- 
lumbia, and several outlying territories and dependencies. 
These are all firmly united under a free, popular govern- 
ment, or Republic, with the capital at Washington in the 
District of Columbia. This city, unlike our other large 




DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 515 

cities, is almost entirely occupied with the affairs of govern- 
ment, instead of with manufacturing and commerce. 

Outlying Territories and Dependencies of the 
United States 

Alaska. — Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. 
Give its latitude. Describe the surface (Fig. 363). How 
must the Japan Current (p. 46) and the prevailing west- 
erlies (Fig. 30) affect its climate ? In the shallow waters 
near the coast, cod and halibut abound, and salmon are 
caught in the rivers. Seals, valuable for their fur, are 
captured on the Pribilof Islands. Locate these islands 
(Fig. 356) : also the Aleutian Islands (Fig. 241). Re- 
cently gold mining has become important at various places, 
especially in the Klondike region of Canada on the upper 
Yukon (Fig. 398). There are very large gold mines at 
Juneau near Sitka, the capital. 

Cuba and Porto Rico. — As a result of the war of 1898, 
Porto Rico was ceded by Spain to the United States, and 
Cuba was given its independence under the general guid- 
ance, of the United States. Since these islands have a 
mountainous surface, and are in the trade-wind belt, how 
must their rainfall be distributed? (p. 33). While there 
are valuable forests, farming is the chief industry. Sugar 
(Fig. 383) and tobacco are the leading crops, and coffee 
(Fig. 425), cocoa, tea, and tropical fruits are other prod- 
ucts. By far the largest city is Havana, the capital of 
Cuba (Fig. 400) ; San Juan is the capital and largest 
city of Porto Rico (Fig. 400). 

Hawaiian Islands. — Locate these islands (Fig. 338), 
which are volcanic in origin. What can you tell about 



516 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 

their climate ? Sugar is their principal crop (Fig. 388), 
and coffee, rice, and tropical fruits are other products. 
The Pacific coast cities are their chief markets, and 
San Francisco refines much of their sugar. Name the 
chief city (Fig. 338). The islands constitute a territory 
of the United States similar to Alaska. 

Guam and Samoa. — -These islands (Fig. 338) are of 
value to us mainly as coaling stations. What does that 
mean ? Only Tutuila among the Samoan Islands (p. 484) 
belongs to us. 

Philippine Islands. — In what latitude do these islands 
lie? (Figs. 241 and 338). They form a portion of the 
great girdle of mountain chains and volcanoes shown in 
Figure 5. The winter season is dry, but the summer mon- 
soon (p. 36) brings heavy rains. What must the tempera- 
ture be ? The extensive forests and mineral deposits are 
little utilized, but hemp, tobacco, sugar, coffee, and cocoa 
are raised for export. 

Countries North of the United States 

Canada and Newfoundland. — The Dominion of Canada 
was formed in 1867. It now consists of seven provinces. 
Name the seven provinces and the sparsely settled terri- 
tories (Fig. 398). Canada is a dependency of Great 
Britain, and has a popular government of its own, with 
Ottawa as the capital. Newfoundland never joined this 
union, and hence forms a separate British colony. 

Southern Canada is very similar to northern United 
States in physiography, climate, and products. Farther 
north there is a forest belt inhabited mainly by Indians 
and trappers ; and beyond that are extensive tundras, or 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 517 

barrens, having almost no inhabitants with the exception 
of a few Eskimos along the coast. Locate the four largest 
rivers and the three largest lakes. 

The forests are one of the greatest sources of wealth, 
and many of the cities have sawmills, furniture factories, 
pulp mills, etc. ; for example, Fredericton and St. 
John in New Brunswick, and Montreal, Ottawa, and 
Toronto farther west. 

Fishing is an important industry, especially along the 
eastern coast (Fig. 369). Some of the best-known ports 
are Yarmouth and Halifax in Nova Scotia, and St. 
John's in Newfoundland. Vessels from the latter port are 
engaged in sealing and whaling. The seals on the eastern 
side of Canada are of value for their fat, or blubber, and 
not for their fur. 

Wheat and hardy fruits are raised in British Columbia, 
as in the state of Washington, which has a similar climate. 
Farther east cattle and sheep raising are the main indus- 
tries, as in Montana. Manitoba is noted for wheat, and 
Winnipeg is a wheat centre, like Minneapolis. The best 
agricultural section is in Ontario. In this province, which 
contains nearly one-half of the inhabitants of Canada, the 
best farming land and the most people are found in 
the peninsula which extends southward between Lake 
Huron and Lakes Erie and Ontario. Name the large 
cities in this peninsula. The lakes so temper the climate 
that grapes and peaches flourish as in New York. Also 
quantities of grain are produced, and many cattle, sheep, 
horses, and hogs are raised. There is other good farm 
land along the St. Lawrence and in New Brunswick, Prince 
Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. 

The Klondike region of Canada, noted for gold, has 



518 REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 

already been mentioned (p. 515), and there are many other 
mineral deposits, including iron ore, copper, and coal. The 
most important coal mines are found on Cape Breton Island, 
a part of northern Nova Scotia, where there is also iron 
manufacturing. 

The main water outlet for Canada is by the way of the 
Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, with large ship 
canals around the rapids. Name the chief cities along 
this route. What is the corresponding outlet in the 
United States ? Why is the population along one route 
much greater than that along the other ? Montreal is 
at the head of navigation to ocean vessels, since there are 
rapids in the river just above it. Its commerce is there- 
fore greater than that of Quebec ; and because so many 
raw products can be brought cheaply by water, it is a 
manufacturing centre as well. Among the articles made 
there are sugar, boots and shoes, cotton and woollen goods, 
and iron and steel goods. Ottawa, the capital of Can- 
ada, is situated where there are falls in the Ottawa River. 
The situation of Toronto is especially favorable to manu- 
facturing. How ? 

The greatest railway in Canada is the Canadian Pacific (Fig. 
394), which extends from St. John, New Brunswick, where there 
is a good harbor, to Vancouver on the Pacific coast. Name the 
principal towns along the route. Locate Victoria on Vancouver 
Island. The Canadian Pacific railway offers the shortest route 
from England to China and Japan, and much freight is sent 
that way. 

Islands north of North America. — These islands have very 
few inhabitants, and those mainly Eskimos. Tell how they 
live. Note the country to which Greenland belongs (Fig. 356). 
Tell about the icebergs that break off from the Greenland 
glaciers. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 519 

Counteies South of the United States 

Mexico. — The physiography of Mexico recalls that of 
Spain, since the interior is a table-land crossed by moun- 
tains with low land along the coast. The rivers have 
rapids and falls, and most of them are quite short. Why ? 
Name the two principal peninsulas. In what wind belts 
does Mexico lie? (Fig. 25). What follows about the dis- 
tribution and quantity of rain? (Fig. 26; also pp. 31-34). 
What can you say about the temperature, remembering the 
different elevations of land ? 

Mexico is a republic composed of several states, with 
Mexico City as the capital. Spanish is the language of 
the country, which formerly belonged to Spain. Since 
the Spanish settlers freely intermarried with the Indians, 
many of the citizens are half-breeds ; there are also pure- 
blooded Spaniards, semi-civilized Aztecs, and, in remote 
districts, tribes of savage Indians. 

On the arid plateau, wherever the mountain streams 
make irrigation possible, wheat, corn, beans, and the fruits 
of the temperate zone are raised. The maguey, or agave, 
a plant of the arid regions, is extensively cultivated for 
its juice — which is made into the common drink called 
pulque — and for its fibre. Grazing is an important in- 
dustry, as in western Texas. 

On the damp coastal plains, sugar cane, cotton, and tropi- 
cal fruits are grown ; and upon the slopes between these 
plains and the table-land, tobacco and coffee (Fig. 425 ; 
also p. 116) are raised. In southern Mexico there are 
dense tropical forests containing valuable woods, such as 
mahogany and roseioood. Other products are pepper, 
sarsaparilla, and vanilla. 



520 



HE VIE IV OF NORTH AMEBIC A 



It was the mines that attracted the Spaniards to Mexico, 
and that country still produces such an amount of silver 
that it ranks second among silver-producing regions 

(Fig. 416). 
Large areas 
have never been 
carefully ex- 
plored for ore, 
and in many of 
the mines, oper- 
ated by Mexi- 
cans, very primi- 
tive methods are 
employed. 

Mexico City 
is the largest 



city, having a 
population of 
350,000. Since 
good harbors are 
wanting, owing 
to the rising land (p. 488), Vera Cruz is the only im- 
portant port. There is almost no manufacturing in Mexican 
cities. Why ? 

Central America. — This mountainous region has several 
active volcanoes and is often disturbed by earthquakes. 
In fact, because of the frequent shocks it has been neces- 
sary to change the sites of some of the large cities. 
Name the five republics (Fig. 399). Their population is 
similar in origin to that of Mexico, and there are frequent 
revolutions, as in South America. Point out the British 
colony of British Honduras, or Belize. 




Fig. 399. 
A map of Central America. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 521 

What about the temperature and rainfall (Fig. 26) of 
Central America ? A large portion of the land is cov- 
ered with tropical forests containing valuable woods and 
the rubber tree (p. 115). As in Mexico, coffee is raised on 
the hill slopes in the shade of the forest trees, one of the 
most important sections for this industry being Guatemala 
(Fig. 426). Bananas, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and cocoa are 
other products. The largest city is Guatemala with 
seventy thousand inhabitants. 

Nicaragua is of special interest to us on account of the 
proposed Nicaragua Canal, favored in our country in pref- 
erence to the Panama Canal (p. 132). The Nicaragua 
route is longer than the Panama route, but a part of the 
distance is occupied by a lake, and the elevation necessary 
to be passed over is only half as great as that for the 
Panama Canal. 

Islands. — From Yucatan to Florida a chain of islands, 
called the West Indies pr Antilles, extends to the mouth 
of the Orinoco River, thus enclosing the Caribbean Sea 
(Fig. 400). Why the name West Indies? To what 
extent do they lie within the tropics ? What about their 
winds and rainfall ? Two of the larger ones have already 
been treated (p. 515). Jamaica, the third in size, is a 
British colony. Name its capital. The inhabitants are 
mainly negroes engaged in raising sugar cane, early vegeta- 
bles, and tropical fruits. 

Haiti, next to Cuba in size, is composed of two inde- 
pendent negro republics. Name their capitals. Much of 
the land is forest covered, and agriculture is the principal 
occupation. The products are similar to those of the 
other islands. How does Haiti rank in the production of 
coffee? (Fig. 426). 



522 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 



Note the names of some of the Lesser Antilles, and also the 
countries to which they belong. What effect must the growing 
beet sugar industry of Europe (p. 288) have upon these islands, 
in which sugar-cane is the most important product ? 

The Bahamas are numerous small islands built of coral. 
Many sponges are obtained on the reefs, and early vegetables 



.Tampa v^ ^Longitude West 74 from Greenwich 66 

Ko 7 VVe^V?"* ,8^ V f* ^ " 
■5 H ,„„ i-i' r Iut>«° 5 ' 'e • » .5AN < ^A-^- 

V* aVa !L«Vi4>"'>»L. "fcfcSALVAOOR 

"ji^C. Catoche' 

•9 Santiago ttelg|^ 







.^.glV^wijtloi I C A R IB B E 

S~K-- 3 »S™f CENTRAL 



JAMAJCA 

fl% J> aiFPrinee """"> ,'f^ 

f T [ L L E S suac 




x jv s.e.4 



Ojv. 



Fig. 400. 
A map of the West Indies. 



pineapples, oranges, and cocoanuts come from the islands. They 
are also a winter resort. Find the Bermudas (Fig. 356) a tiny 
island group in the open ocean. They form a British colony. 
The Bermudas are also a winter resort, and the inhabitants are 
engaged in raising Easter lilies and early vegetables, especially 
potatoes and onions, for the American market. 



XXV. THE UNITED STATES COMPARED 
WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 

Area and Population. — In spite of the vast extent of 
the United States, there are three empires in the Old 



British Empire 



flussUrtErrwtre Chinese United 
Errvplre states 



Brazil 




Fig. 401. 
Area of the five largest nations. 

World with a greater area. Which are they? (Fig. 401). 
Which country is fifth in size ? Compare the United 
States with each of these in area. 

The United States also ranks fourth in population (Eig. 
402). Name the five most populous countries in the 

Chinese Empire jBrittjirv Empire 

%^iari Untte€l 

Gerrrva rvy 




Fig. 402. 
The five most populous nations, 1900. 



order of their rank. What facts do you discover by 
comparing Figures 40 L and 402? Figure 403 shows the 



52-1 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



density of population, or the number of people per square 
mile, in some of the countries in the world. From this it 

will be seen that 
the United States 
is very thinly 
settled compared 
with many coun- 
tries. Compare 
the United States 
in this regard 
with Belgium, 
England, Cuba, 
Mexico, and Can- 
ada. 

Leading Raw 
Products. — 
Nevertheless, the 
United States 
leads the world 
in many very important respects and approaches leadership 
in several others. Figure 404 shows that no nation is a 



111 


'.'-.:■ '■;■'■ ""I 








Belgium Jos 


England mo 


Japan SS4 


Italy 280 


China 210 














Germany 250 


France 1S6 


India iSi 


Spain S'J 


Phil. Is 'ds 72 
























Russia J.! 


Cuba :i<: 


U. Stales w 


Mexico "'• 


Hawaii /'•' 












C.Colony s 


Brazil 4.5 


Argentina 8 


(anuria ? 


Australia/. ?S 



Fig. 403. 
Density of population of some of the countries. 




Fig. 404. 
Sketch map to show the approximate distribution of corn. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



525 



close rival to us in the production of corn. What coun- 
tries, however, raise large quantities of it ? Why is no 




Fig. 405. 
Approximate distribution of wheat. 



corn raised in the British Isles? (p. 181). Wheat is more 
widely cultivated than corn (Fig. 405). Yet we are far 



United States 



67^/49,000 




fiussiart 
Empire 



498,836000 



Finance 



British, 



Austria 



37(881,000 



India u unffary 



Z4 292/000 



170938000 



Fig. 406. 
The five leading wheat-producing countries, 1898. 

in the lead in that grain (Fig. 406). Point out (Fig. 405) 
the leading wheat fields of the world. Which sections are 
important for both wheat and corn ? On which side of 
the Atlantic is wheat raised farthest north ? Why ? 

Cotton is limited to warm climates (Fig. 407), so that 
comparatively few countries raise it. Name the five that 
lead in its production (Fig. 408). To what extent does the 



526 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 




HZ34383 

J3alestfJ00lbs 



Fig. 407. 
Approximate distribution of cotton. 

output of the United States surpass that of the four other 

countries t o- 
Urvlted States India Z,Z7J,ZO0 o-ether ? Ill what 

China 1320,000 £ ,-, TT ., , 

, _, parts 01 the U nitecl 

India- r**, in „r- + 

Chuuf4ypt tf br(ia States is most cot- 
ton manufacturing 
carried on ? What 
other countries 
have important 
c otto n -man ufac- 




Effypt 1,240,000 
Korea WOftOO 

Fig. 408. 
The five leading cotton-producing countries, 1898. 



turing industries ? 




Fig. 409. 
Approximate distribution of sheep. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



527 



Note the distribution of sheep and cattle (Fig. 409). 
What is our rank in the production of wool? (Fig. 410). 



Australasia 



Russia 



United Sts. United 
Kingdom 




Fig. 410. 

The five leading wool-producing countries, 1899. 

Yet we consume much more than we raise. Recall some 
facts concerning sheep raising in Australia, Argentina, 
and the United States. What nations have important 
woollen manufacturing ? 

The extreme importance of coal and iron for manufac- 
turing purposes has often been emphasized. But Figure 




Fig. 411. 
Approximate distribution of coal. 



411 represents the coal fields as very limited. What coun- 
tries have little or none ? Name the leading coal-produc- 
ing sections, and state the rank of the United States in 
this mineral (Fig. 412). 



528 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 

UnUectStaws creat Britain, 



2S2J1J,3Q7 
Tons 




£16,195,200 



Germany 



Austria 
Hu/vgaryrrance 



m£83/96 



ALust.Hung. 39,315,3/6 
rrartce 35,716,611 



Fig. 412. 
The five leading coal-producing countries, 1899. 

Is iron ore more or less widely distributed than coal? 
(Fig. 413). How does the United States rank in the 




Fig.. 413. 
Approximate distribution of iron mines. 

output of this mineral (Fig. 413) ; also in the production 
of pig iron (Fig. 414), which demands coal as well as 

Un-ltedSttates 

Ut'el. Jttnsqdom Germany 

RussKv 



TES 



,11,77 3.93H 



nris ' '[ i" 1 - 11 " 1 * 









8,63/,/5/ 



7,2 32,9 8 &■ 



Frarxce 



ZS31HZ7. 



(868,6 7/ 



Fig. 414. 
The five leading countries in the production of pig iron, 1898. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



529 



iron ore ? How does the output of coal and iron cor- 
respond to the importance of countries as manufacturing 
nations? (Fig. 421). 

Where are the principal silver-mining sections ? 
(Fig. 415). And how do we compare with other countries 




Fig. 415. 
Approximate distribution of silver mining. 

in this product? (Fig. 416). Notice to what extent the 
world is indebted to the New World for silver. Tell 



United States 


Mexico 


Bolivia $621jr,78H 
Australasia Boltvia 


$34,036,168 


$3Z,788JG& 


$9131688 




CHile 










Chit* 


$3?39?i30 



Fiu. 41G. 
The rive leading silver-producing countries, 1899. 

about the distribution of gold (Fig. 417) and give our 
rank in the production of that metal (Fig. 418). How 
does the value of the total gold production compare with 
that of silver in the five leading regions for each ? 
2 m 



530 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



Figure 419 suggests that the United States leads the 
world in the production of petroleum, or mineral oil, which 




Fig. 417. 
Approximate distribution of gold mining 



is true. The second most important district for petroleum 
is in Russia near the Caspian Sea. Other districts pro- 



So. African Rep. 


Australia 


United States 




$ 72.961J01 


r/,306,/30 


70.096.02/ 


Russia Canada. 


23,963.017 


21.049,730 







Fig. 418. 
The five leading gold-producing countries, 1899. 

duce little petroleum. On the same map with petroleum 
is shown the distribution of rubber. To what countries 
and climates is rubber confined ? (Fig. 419). 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — According to Figure 420 
on what two continents is there the greatest development 
of manufacturing? What other smaller sections are active 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



531 



in this industry ? Considering the abundance of our raw 
materials and the energy and intelligence of our people, 




Fig. 419. 
Approximate distribution of petroleum ; also of rubber. 




Fig. 420. 
Approximate distribution of manufacturing 



United States 



France Russia 




Fig. 421. 
The five leading manufacturing countries, 1888. 



532 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



it is not surprising that we surpass all other countries in 
such work (Fig. 421). State the rank of other leading 
nations in this occupation. 

In provision for transportation by rail the United States 
also takes the leading place. It has by far the greatest 
number of miles of railway of any nation (Fig. 422), 



United States 




nussucermanyn^^^i^anpffcm 



02351 



31,/JO 



23,576 



21/639 



Fig. 422. 
The five countries having the greatest length of railways, 1898. 

though several small European countries have a greater 
development of railways in proportion to their area. 
The United States ranks second in provision for trans- 
portation by water (Fig. 423). State the rank of the five 



United Kingdom 



d 001 860 Tons 




UnitedStates upthpr. 

lands penny. NorwAV 



4 861238 



/665 370 



1639 552 



Fig. 423. 
The five countries having the largest merchant marine, 1898. 

chief countries in total length of railways, and in merchant 
marine. Give reasons why the United Kingdom should 
lead in merchant marine (p. 201). Why should Norway 
be of importance in this respect? (p. 255). 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



533 



All these facts prepare us for Figure 424, which shows 
that the United States is the wealthiest nation on the 



United States 



64000mUlion 

J3ollar.\ 




Gt. Britain 



47000 



France 



42 000 



Germany Russia 



32000 



2SOOO 



Fig. 424. 
The five wealthiest nations, 1888. 

face of the earth. Compare our wealth with that of other 
leading countries. In how many and what respects have 
our products and industries been shown to lead all nations 
of the world ? 

Dependence upon Other Nations. — All together the United 
States ma} r be considered a wonderfully favored and inde- 
pendent nation, since it has such a wealth of raw products, 
and such an extensive development of manufacturing. 
We could, probably, better than any other nation, depend 
upon ourselves alone for all that we need, if occasion 
should arise. Yet so closely related are the nations of the 
world that if war arises between two of them, our indus- 
tries and markets are affected. This is due largely to 
the fact that we produce far more than we need of certain 
commodities, as wheat, cotton, meat, and iron, for which a 
market must be found abroad. These we export. But it 
is also due to the fact that we are partly, or wholly, 
dependent upon foreign countries for certain other arti- 
cles. These we import. 

For example, Figure 425 shows that coffee is not grown 
within our states, although it is daily consumed in almost 



534 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 




fig. 425. 
Approximate distribution of coffee. 

every household. Notice, however, that it is produced in 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands (Fig. 425). 

To what climate and 
Venezuela &.800 countries is it confined ? 
Java v^<?/-e State the rank of the 
y^y^ua^tu p r i nc ipal coffee-produc- 
ing sections and com- 



Bra zll 



705,390 




Ciuuemato33,330 pare their output (Fig. 

Ham zsjo&o 426). 

Fig. 42(3. Note the beet sugar 

The five leading coffee-producing sections, and cane Sugar areas 

im - (Fig. 427). Also the 




Fig. 427. 
Distribution of sugar cane and beet sugar. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



535 



rank of the leading countries which manufacture cane 
sugar (Fig. 428). Our own states produce far less sugar 



Cuba 



!- 832, 431 
Jfct , Tons Mi 



Java, 



546, 750 




Un " ed Jts Hawaii phiL/Si 



Fig. 428. 
The five countries producing most cane sugar, 1898. 

each year than we consume. Of what importance, there- 
fore, in this respect is our newly established relation to 
Cuba and the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands ? 

Figure 429 represents us as depending wholly on foreign 
nations for raw silk. Name the chief silk-producing coun- 




Fig. 429. 
Approximate distribution of raw silk production. 

tries; also compare their output (Fig. 430). Our tea also 
comes almost entirety from abroad (Fig. 431). From what 
region mainly ? And while much rice is produced in our 
Southern States (Fig. 432), a large amount has to be 



536 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



imported. From what sources must it be obtained ? We 
have, therefore, a very extensive trade in imports as well 
as in exports. 



Cfxttxci 



France 




ItxeUa-eei&OO 



Fig. 430. 
The five leading raw silk-producing countries, 1899. 




Fig. 431. 
Approximate distribution of tea. 




Fig. 432. 
Approximate distribution of rice. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



537 



Exports and Imports. — Our ten leading exports, named 
in order of value, together with the principal countries to 
which the goods are sent, are as follows : — 



Articles 

1. Cotton (mainly unmanu- 

factured) 

2. Breadstuff's (wheat, corn, 

flour, etc.) 

3. Meat and dairy products 



Value in 1900 



Iron and steel, and manu- 
factures of 

Mineral oils 



0. Copper (mainly manufac- 
tures of) 

7. Wood, and manufactures 

of 

8. Animals (mainly cattle) 

9. Tobacco 

10. Leather, and manufac- 
tures of 
Total value of exports 



Principal Countries to which they 
are sent 

Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
$265,836,000 Japan. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, Nether- 
262,744,000 lands, Belgium. 
184,453,000 Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
Belgium. 
Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 
121,914,000 Mexico. 
75,612,000 Gt. Britain, Germany, Nether- 
lands, Belgium. 
Gt. Britain, Netherlands, 
57,853,000 France, Germany. 

Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 
50,598,000 W. Indies. 
43,585,000 Gt, Britain. 
35,433,000 Gt. Britain, Germany, Italy, 
France. 
Gt, Britain, Australasia, Can- 
27,293,000 ada. 
11,394,484,000 



The ten leading imports, on the other hand, are as 
follows : — 



Value in 1900 



Principal Countries from which 
they come 



.$101,141,000 E. Ind., Hawaiian Isds., Cuba, 
Germany (beet sugar). 
76,224,000 Japan, France, China, Italy. 
57,936,000 E. Indies, S. America, Gt. 
Britain, France. 



Articles 

1. Sugar and molasses 

2. Silk, and manufactures of 

3. Hides and skins 

4. Fibre, and manufactures 

of 

5. Chemicals, drugs, etc. 

6. Coffee 

7. Cotton (mainly manufac- 

tures of) 

8. Wool, and manufactures 

of 

9. Rubber and rubber goods 
10. Fruits and nuts 

Total value of imports $849,941,000 

In Figure 433 trace the main steamship lines of the world 
by which these goods are carried. Compare the value 



57,933,000 Mexico, Philippines, E. Indies. 
53,705,000 Germany, E. Indies, Gt. Brit- 
ain. 

Brazil, Cent. America, E. In- 
dies, Mexico. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, Switzer- 
land, France. 

Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 
S. America. 

Brazil, Gt. Britain. 

Italy, Cent, America, W. In- 
dies. 



52,468,000 



49,502,000 

36,425,000 
33,860,000 
19,264,000 



538 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



and nature of our' exports and imports. How is the result 
encouraging ? 

More than one-third of all our foreign trade is with the 
British Isles, the ten leading countries ranking as follows : — 
The Leading Ten Nations with which the U.S. Trades 



Countries 

1. British Isles 

2. Germany 

3. Fiance 

4. Canada 

i 
I 

5. Netherlands 

6. West Indies 

7. East Indies 

8. Brazil 

9. Mexico 



Value in 1900 

Exp. $ 533,820,000 

Imp. 159,582,000 

Total 693,402,000 

Exp. 187,348,000 

Imp. 97,375,000 

Total 284,723,000 

Exp. 83,335,000 

Imp. 73,012,000 

Total 156,347,000 

Exp. 97,337,000 



Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Total 



f Exp. 



Imp. 
Total 



39,932,000 

137,269,000 

89,387,000 

15,853,000 
105,240,000 
48,561,000 
52,562,000 
101,123,000 
6,634,000 
73,243,000 
79,877,000 
11,578,000 
58,073,000 
69,651,000 
34,975,000 
28,646,000 
63,621,000 
29,087,000 

32,749,000 
61,836,000 



Kinds of Goods 

Provisions, breadstuffs, raw cotton. 

Cotton goods, raw wool, tin, jewellery, 
rubber goods. 

Raw cotton, breadstuffs, provisions. 

Beet sugar, chemicals and drugs, cot- 
ton goods, silk goods. 

Raw cotton, copper, mineral oil. 

Silk goods, hides, jewellery, cotton 
goods. 

Coal, breadstuffs, cotton and manu- 
factures of. 

Lumber, coal, hides. 

Breadstuffs, provisions, copper, min- 
eral oil. 
Jewellery, tin. 

Provisions, breadstuffs, animals. 
Sugar, fruits, cocoa. 

Mineral oil, cotton goods. 
Sugar, hides, tin. 

Breadstuffs, mineral oil, provisions. 
Coffee, rubber, sugar. 

Coal, cotton goods, iron and steel 

manufactures. 
Sisal grass, coffee, lead, hides. 
Manufactured cotton, mineral oil, iron 

and steel manufactures. 
Silk, tea. 



10. Japan •{ 

I 

Name some of the countries which probably have the same 
exports as the United States, and which are, therefore, likely 
to be active rivals to us in supplying foreign markets. 

Owing to our trade relations with the United Kingdom, 
what hardships would probably be brought upon the British 
if they entered upon a war with n<? ? How might the Germans 



540 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 

suffer if they were at war with us ? How might the French 
suffer ? On the other hand, what hardships would come to us 
in each case ? Are we more or less independent than these 
countries in case of such war ? Why ? 

Reasons for the Rank of the United States. — The pre- 
ceding - figures and diagrams show that several European 
countries are the chief competitors with the United 
States in the world's trade. Give examples. But so far 
as the future is concerned, several important facts 
are in our favor. In the first place, we are still in our 
youth as a people, while some of the leading nations 
of Europe have perhaps already reached the zenith of 
their power. In the second place, the territory of most 
of those countries is densely populated, as shown in Fig- 
ure 403. Note the number of inhabitants per square mile 
in Belgium, Germany, and France. When we contrast with 
these figures our average of only twenty persons per square 
mile, the possibility of our future growth seems almost 
without limit. Immense tracts of land, which in Europe 
would be carefully tilled, are in our country not even 
cleared for pasture ; and in no large section of the United 
States do we even approach the careful hand tillage of 
Belgium and some other European countries. 

Another point in our favor is the varied climate and 
physiography of our vast country, encouraging varied prod- 
ucts. Almost all farm products can be raised with little 
care in our rich soil and favorable climate. Add to this 
the wonderful mineral resources, which are apparently not 
equalled on any continent, and it will be seen that our 
natural resources, which have made present development 
possible, promise equally for the future. 

Our people are another element to be considered in 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 541 

reckoning past success and future promise. They have 
consisted, in large part, of those who had energy and 
ambition enough to migrate to a new land in the hope 
of bettering their condition. In their new home the 
possibilities have been so great that they have been en- 
couraged to work and to improve themselves. As the 
environment of the desert has given rise to the nomad, 
and the ease of life in the tropical forest to the degenerate 
savage, so the environment in the United States has 
given rise to a race noted for its energy and enterprise. 
This race has been possible, however, largely by reason of 
the fact that it comes from a mixture of peoples already 
gifted. That resources alone will not make an energetic 
people and a great nation is well illustrated in China, 
where nature favors, but racial characteristics and customs 
are opposed to development. 

Nor would the statement of reasons for the present 
position of the United States and her future prospects 
be complete if left here. There are two other elements 
of high importance ; namely, education and government. 
Where people are hampered by ignorance, petty restric- 
tions, and heavy taxes, unnecessarily imposed upon them 
by their rulers, they have little opportunity for progress. 
It is those European countries in which there are the best 
opportunities for education and the greatest freedom, that 
have made the greatest progress. And no nation in the 
world pays more attention to education, or guarantees its 
people a more active part in their entire government, than 
the United States. 



APPENDIX I 

REFERENCES TO BOOKS, ARTICLES, ETC. 



Publishing Houses. American Book Co., New York (A. B. C.) ; D. Apple- 
ton & Co., New York (App.) ; The Century Co., New York (Cent.) ; Educa- 
tional Publishing Co., Boston (E. P. C.) ; Harper & Bros., New York (H. B.) ; 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston (H. M. C.) ; The Macmillan Co., New York 
(McM.) ; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York (Put.) ; Charles Scribner's Sons, 
New York (Scrib.) ; Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston (S. B. C). 

Magazines. Century Magazine ($0.35 each number), New York {Cent. 
Mag.); Cosmopolitan ($0.10 each), Irvington, N.Y. (Cos.); Chautauquan 
($0.25 each), Meadville, Pa. (Chaut.) ; Harper's Magazine ($0.35 each), 
New York (H. M.) ; Journal of School Geography ($0.15 a number, $1.00 a 
year), Lancaster, Pa. (J. S. G.) ; National Geographic Magazine ($0.25 a 
number, $2.00 a year. Includes membership to Society), Washington, D.C. 
(N. G. M.) ; Scribner's Magazine ($0.25 each), New York {S. M.). 

In referring to magazines, the volume is given first, the page last; thus, 
May, 1891, Volume 6, page 75 = May, '91, 6: 75. 



General. Many of the references in the First Book and some of 
those in the Second Book — for example, references to books on Physi- 
ography and the Philippines — would serve for this volume also. It 
is not, of course, expected that schools will find it possible to obtain 
all or even a large proportion of those mentioned. These lists, which 
could easily be multiplied to many times their present size, are offered 
merely as suggestions to aid those teachers who wish to have a good 
working library. Many good books are omitted from them, either 
because of their cost or for other reasons. At the end of each section 
of Mill's "International Geography" are references to good standard 
books. See also Mill, " Hints to Teachers, etc., on the Choice of Geo- 
graphical Books" (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.25). 

542 



APPENDIX I 543 

Among the many valuable but expensive books of reference mention may 
be made of Re'clus' "The Earth and its Inhabitants" (App., l'J vols., $5.00 
each) ; Stanford's " Compendiums of Geography " (Scrib., 8 vols, at $4.50 and 
2 vols, at $8.40) ; and Baedeker's Guide Books (Scrib.), price variable. The 
latter may be found in the libraries of friends who have travelled abroad. 

There are a number of series for young people which contain good material : 
For example, Butterworth, " Zigzag Journey Series " (Dana Estes & Co., 
Boston, 18 vols., $1.50 each) ; Hale, "Family Flight Series" (Lothrop Pub- 
lishing Co., Boston, 5 vols., $1.50 each) ; Champney, "Three Vassar Girls" 
series (Dana Estes & Co., Boston, 11 vols., $0.75 each). 

Every teacher of geography would find Mill's " International Ge- 
ography, " (App., $3.50) and " The Statesman's Year Book " (McM., 
$ 3.00) of inestimable value. For physiography and climate some help 
may be gained from Tarr, " First Book of Physical Geography " 
(McM., $1.10). For reference to magazines, see First Book of this 
series, pp. 256 and 257. Every teacher ought to have access to at least 
one of these magazines, and the subscription price is so low that they 
are accessible to all. Notice how frequently the National Geographic 
Magazine and the Journal of School Geography are referred to in the 
following lists ; yet only a very few have been selected from the great 
number of really valuable articles. The Bulletin, American Bureau of 
Geography, also contains many valuable articles in each issue. 

South America. There is a Handbook for each of the republics, 
issued by the Bureau of American Republics, Washington, D.C., price 
from $0.30 to $0.50 each. Ballon, " Equatorial America" (H.M.C., 
$1.50); Carpenter, Geographical Reader, " South America " (A. B.C., 
$0.60) ; Childs, " South American Republics " (H. B., $3.50) ; Curtis, 
" Capitals of Spanish America " (H. B., $3.50) ; Coe, " Our American 
Neighbors " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; President Hubbard's Annual Address, 
" South America " (N. G.M., March, '91, 3:1); " Climatic Notes made 
during a Voyage around South America " (,/. S. G., Sept. and Oct., '98, 
2 : 241 and 297) ; " A Winter Voyage through the Straits of Magellan " 
(V. G. M., May, '97, 8: 129) ; " The First Landing on the Antarctic 
Continent " (Cent. Mag., Jan., '96, 51 :432) ; " Magellan and the Pa- 
cific " (H. M., Aug., '90, 81 : 357) ; Bates, " A Naturalist on the River 
Amazon " (Humboldt Library, New York, $1.00) ; Andrews, " Brazil, 
Its Conditions and Prospects" (App., $1.50); Ford, "Tropical America" 
(Scrib., $2.00) ; " The Valley of the Amazon and its Development " 
(/. S. G., Sept., '97, 1:193); "The Argentine Capital" (H. M., 



544 APPENDIX I 

March, '91, 82:491); "Argentine Provincial Sketches" (H. M., Apr., 
'91, 82:781); "The Argentine People," etc. (H. M., May, '91, 82: 
863) ; " Patagonia " (A r . G. M., Nov., '97, 8 : 305) ; " The Republic of 
Uruguay " (H. M., May, '91, 82:906) ; " The Republic of Paraguay" 
(H.M., July, '91, 83:222); Rodway, "In the Guiana Wilds" (L. C. 
Page & Co., Boston, -fl.25); Curtis, "Venezuela" (H. B., $1.25); 
"Venezuela: her government," etc. ( N. G. M., Feb., '90, 7:49); 
"Glimpses of Venezuela and Guiana" (Cent. Mag., July '96, 52: 
358) ; Whymper, "Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator " 
(Scrib., $2.50); "Across the Andes" (H.M., Sept., '90, 81:489); 
" The Ascent of Illimani " and " Climbing Mount Sorata " (//. M., 
Oct. and Nov., '99, 99 : 657 and 863) ; " The Road to Bolivia "(N. G. M., 
June and July, 1900, 11:209 and 264); "A Journey in Ecuador " 
(N. G. M., July, '96, 7 : 23S) ; Pratt, " Pizarro : Conquest of Peru " 
E. P. C, $0.30) ; " Impressions of Peru " (H. M., Jan., '91, 82 : 253) ; 
Smith, "Temperate Chile " (McM., $3.50) ; " The Climatic Control of 
Occupation in Chile " (./. S. G., Dec, '97, 1 : 289) ; Articles on Chile 
(H. M., Oct. and Nov., '90, 81:764 and 901); "A Day in the Falk- 
land Islands " (./. S. G., Feb., '98, 2 : 49). 

Europe. Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., $0.50) ; Coe, 
"Modern Europe" (S. B. C, $0.60); Emerson, "European Glimpses 
and Glances" (Cassell & Co., New York, $1.00); King, "Northern 
Europe " (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Davis, " The Rulers of the 
Mediterranean " (H. B., $1.25) ; " From the Black Forest to the Black 
Sea " (H. M., Feb. to Aug., '92, Vols. 84 and 85) ; Lyde, " A Geogra- 
phy of the British Isles " (McM., $0.60) ; Green, " A Short Geography 
of the British Islands " (McM., $0.90) ; Davis, "Our English Cousins " 
(H. B., $1.25) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Geikie, 
"The Scenery in Scotland " (McM., $3.50) ; Corbin, "Schoolboy Life 
in England " (H. B., $1.25) ; " The Temperature of the British Isles " 
(J. S. G., Dec, '98, 2:361); "The House of Commons," etc. (H. M., 
Dec, '93, 88 : 34) ; " A General Election in England " (H. M., Sept., '93, 
87 : 489) ; " London as seen by C. D. Gibson " (S. M., Feb.-June, '97, 
Vol. 21) ; " The Geography of Greater London " (J. S. G., Feb., '01, 
5:41); "The Best-governed City in the World" (H. M., June, '90, 
81 : 99) ; " Notes on the Geography of Scotland " (J. S. G., May, '98, 
2 : 161); "From Home to Throne in Belgium" (H. M., Apr., '97, 94: 722); 
"Principal Cities of Holland" (Chaut., June, '98, 27:227); "Land 



APPENDIX I 545 

Wrested from the Sea" (Chaut., Aug. '95, 21 : 597); " The Picturesque 
Quality of Holland "(S.M., 2: 160; 5:162; 10:621); Macdonald, "Paris 
of the Parisians" (Lippincott, Philadelphia, $1.50); Davis, "About 
Paris" (H. B., $1.25) ; " Present Condition of France" (Chaut., Dec, 
'98, 28 : 280) ; "Commerce and Manufactures of France" (Chaut., Aug., 
'97, 25 : 480) ; " The French Army " (H. M., Apr., '91, 82 : 653) ; Finck, 
" Spain and Morocco " (Scrib., $1.25) ; Stoddard, " Spanish Cities " 
(Scrib., $1.50); Stephens, "Portugal" (Put., $1.50); Loring, "A 
Year in Portugal" (Put., $1.50); " Up Gibraltar ; to Tangier; into 
Spain" (Chaut., Aug., '93, 17:515); Articles on Spanish Cities (Cos., 
May-Sept., '96, Vol. 21) ; Thomas, " Sweden and the Swedes" (Rand, 
McNally & Co., Chicago, $3.75) ; Pratt, " Legends of Norseland " (E. 
P. C, $0.40); "A Glacier Excursion in Norway" (Cos., Oct., '97, 
23 : 625) ; Stepniak, "The Russian Peasantry" (H. B., $1.25); Stepniak, 
"Russia under the Tzars" (Scrib., $1.50); Greene, "Army Life in 
Russia" (Scrib., $1.25); "Baltic Russia" (H. M., July, '90, 81:295); 
" The Czar's People " (H. M., June, '98, 97 : 3) ; " Awakened Russia " 
(H. M., May, '98, 96 : 817) ; " Finland " etc. (H. M., Feb., '91, 82 : 330 ; 
"The People of the Reindeer" (Laplanders) (Cent. Mag., Aug., '99, 
58 : 582) ; Pratt, " Stories from Old Germany " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; 
"The Government of German Cities" (Cent. Mag., June, '94,48: 
296); "Some Impressions of Berlin" (Cos., Jan., 1900, 28:315); 
"Impressions of Berlin " (H. M., Aug., '90, 81:340); "Stuttgart" 
(H. M., Jan. and Feb., '98, 96:269 and 382); "The German Army 
of To-day" (H. M., May, '92, 84:869); "German Universities" 
(Chaut., Aug., '96, 23:560); "The German Royal Family" (Chaut., 
Sept., '96, 23:668) ; Articles on Germany (Chaut., Oct., '94-Nov., '95, 
Vols. 20-22) ; Lubbock, " The Scenery of Switzerland" (McM., $1.50) ; 
" A Thousand Miles through the Alps " (S. M., June, '96, 20 : 28) ; 
"Venice in Easter" (H. M., Apr., '95, 90 : 738) ; "Italian Gardens" 
(H. M., June and Aug., '93, 87 : 165 and 393) ; " The Corso of Rome " 
(S. M., Oct., '91, 10:399); "St. Peter's" (Cent. Mag., July, '96, 52: 
323); "The Italian Army" (H. M., Aug., '92, 85:419); Whitman, 
"Austria" (Put,, $1.50); "Vienna as a Type City" (/. S. G., May, 
'99, 4 : 175) ; " The Tyroleans " (Cos., Sept., '98, 25 : 487) ; " The Ban- 
derium of Hungary" (S. M., Mar., '97, 21:267); "The Austro- 
Hungarian Army" (H. M., June, '92, 85:50); "Austria" (J. S. G., 
Dec, '98, 2:394); "Wheeling in Tyrolean Valleys" (Cent. Mag., 
2n 



546 APPENDIX I 

Apr., '97, 53:866); "Constantinople" (5. M., Dec, '93-Jan., '94, 
Vols. 14 and 15); "A Visit to Athens" (H. M., June, '96,93:3); 
"In the Wake of a War" (Greece) (11. M., Mar., '98, 96:548). 

Asia. Lyde, "A Geography of Asia" (McM., $0.50); Carpenter, 
"Asia" (A. B. C, |0.00) ; Smith, "Life in Asia" (S. B. C, $0.60) ; 
"Across Asia on a Bicycle" (Cent. Mag., May-Oct., '94, Vol. 48) ; 
Series of articles on Southwest Asia and India (//. M., '90, '93-'95, 
Vols. 81, 87-91); Mathews, "New Testament Times in Palestine" 
(McM., $0.75); Douglas, "The Land where Jesus Christ lived" 
(Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York, $1.00) ; Curtis, " Howadji in 
Syria" (H. B., $1.50); "The Holy Places of Islam" (H. M., Nov., 
'92, 85 : 813) ; " The Russo-Siberian Plain " (/. S. G., March, '00, 4 : 81) ; 
"A "Winter Journey through Siberia" (Cent. Mag., Sept., '91, 42: 
643); Articles on Siberia (H. M., July and Aug., '98, 97:240 and 
327); Lyall, " The Rise of the British Dominion in India" (Scrib., 
$1.50); Pratt, " Stories of India" (E. P. C, $0.40); Kipling, " The 
Jungle Books" (Cent., $1.50); Elephant and Tiger Hunting in India 
(H. M., July and Oct., '92, 85:290 and 706); "An American in 
Tibet" (Cent. Mag., Nov., '90-March, '91, Vol. 41); "Among the 
Farthest People" (Tibet) (Cos., Feb., 1900, 28:443); "Life in 
the Malay Peninsula" (Cent. Mag., Feb., '93, 45:577); Colquhoun, 
"Overland to China" (H. B., $3.00); Colquhoun, "China in Trans- 
formation" (H. B., $3.00); "The Crisis in China" (H. B.; $1.00) ; 
Little, " Through the Yangtse Gorges " (Scrib., $2.50) ; Ralph, " Alone 
in China" (H. B., $2.00) ; Pratt, "Stories of China" (E. P. C, $0.40); 
" In the City of Canton " (Cent. Mag., Nov., '94, 49 : 59) ; " The Great 
Wall of China" (Cent. Mag., Jan., '93, 45:327 and 332); Series of 
Articles on China (Cent. Mag., Aug.-Oct., '99, Vol. 58); also (H. M., 
June-Aug., '95, A'ol. 91); Griffis, " Corea : The Hermit Nation 1 '' 
(Scrib., $2.50); "Korea and the Koreans" (N. G. M., '90, 2:231); 
Norman, "The Real Japan" (Scrib., $1.50); Scidmore, "Jinrikisha 
Days in Japan" (H. B., $2.00); Bramhall, "Wee Ones of Japan" 
(H. B., $1.00) ; Series of Articles on Japan (H. M., '94 and '95, 
Vols. 89 and 90) ; also (S. M., Apr.-June, '93, Vol. 13) ; also (5. M., '90 
and '91, Vols. 8 and 9) ; "Japanese Women " (H. M., Dec, '90, 82 : 119); 
" An American Artist in Japan " (Cent. Mag., Sept., '89, 38 : 670). 

Africa. Lyde, "A Geography of Africa" (McM., $0.50) ; Stanley 
and others, " Africa : Its Partition and Its Future " (Dodd, Mead & 



APPENDIX I 547 

Co., New York, $1.25); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C, 
$0.72) ; Annual Address of President Hubbard, " Africa, Its Past and 
Future " (N. G. M., '89, 1 : 99) ; " Africa since 1888" (N. G. M., May, 
'96, 7 :157); Curtis, "Nile Notes of a Howadji " (II. B., $1.50); 
Edwards, "A Thousand Miles up the Nile" (G. Routledge & Sons, 
New York, $2.50) ; Rawlinson, " The Story of Ancient Egypt " (Put., 
$1.50) ; " The Egyptian Sudan and Its History " (/. S. G ., Feb. '99, 
3:41); "In Fascinating Cairo" (Cent. Mag., Oct., '99, 58:811); 
" Climatic Control in the Desert " (J. 5. G., Sept., '99, 4 : 255) ; " A 
Sahara Caravan " (S. M., March, '93, 13 : 315) ; " Cairo in 1890 " (H. 
M., Oct., Nov., '91, 83 : 651 and 828) ; " Peeps into Barbary " (H. M., 
Aug., '96, 93:387); "Tripoli of Barbary" (S. M., Jan., '90, 7:37); 
"An Arab Fete in the Desert" (Cos., Apr., '97, 22:665); Bryce, 
" Impressions of South Africa " (Cent., $3.50) ; Stanley, " Through 
South Africa " (Scrib., $1.00) ; Hillegas, " Oom Paul's People " (App., 
$1.50); Bigelow, " White Man's Africa " (H. B., $2.50) ; Younghus- 
band, " South Africa of To-day " (McM., $2.00) ; " Phirpire-building 
in South Africa" (Cos., March, '96, 20:472); Drummond, "Tropi- 
cal Africa" (Scrib., $1.00); Stanley, "My Kalulu " (Scrib., $1.50); 
Stanley, " My Dark Companions " (Scrib., $2.00) ; " The Pygmies 
of the Great African Forest" (S. M., Jan., '91, 9 : 3); "Abyssinia" 
(N. G. M., March, '01, 12:89); "The Gold Coast, Ashanti and 
Kumassi " (N. G. M., Jan., '97, 8:1); " Life among the Congo Sav- 
ages " (S. M., Feb., '90, 7 : 135). 

Australia, etc. Davitt, "Life and Progress in Australasia" (New 
Amsterdam Book Co., New York, $2.50) ; Pratt, " Stories of Aus- 
tralasia " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Kellogg, " Australia and the Islands of 
the Sea " (S. B. C, $0.68) ; Ballou, " Under the Southern Cross " 
(H. M. C, $1.50); "The Australian Horseman" (H. M., July, '99, 
99:257); "Convicts and Bushrangers in Australia" (Cos., May and 
June, '96, 21 : 91 and 173) ; " New Zealand " (H. M., Aug., '91, 83 : 
327); Chalmers, "Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea" (F. H. 
Revell & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Reeves, "Brown Men and Women " 
(McM., $3.50) ; " A Little Journey in Java " (H. M., May, '94, 88 : 
918) ; " Down to Java " (Cent. Mag., Aug., '97, 54 : 527) ; " The Cli- 
mate of the Philippine Islands" (/. S. G., Dec, '99, 3:361); "The 
Samoan Islands " (N. G. M., Nov., 1900, 11 ; 417) ; " Samoa" (N. G. 
M., June, 1900, 10 : 207). 



APPENDIX II 

TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 



SIZE OF THE EARTH 



Length of the Earth's Diameter 

at the Equator (miles), 7,926 

Length of Equator (miles), 24,902 



The Earth's Surface (square 

miles), 196,940,000 

Total area of oceans (square 

miles), 141,486,000 



Pacific 



SJT,660,000 
Square Miles 




Atlantic 



33,72 0,000 



Antarctic 



30,60J,000 



In-dlan 



16720,000 



Arctic 



Arctic 9,781.000 



Fig. 436. 

Relative areas of oceans. The Antarctic includes the great southern sea sur- 
rounding the south pole. 



CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, COLONIES, ETC. 



Area in 
Square Miles 

North America, '00, 8,025,591 

Alaska, '00 577,390 

Bahama Islands. '91 5,450 

Bermuda Islands, '91 20 

British Honduras, '97 7,562 

Canada, '91 3,315,647 

Central America, '97 175,696 

Costa Rica, '97 22,996 

Cuba, '99 41,655 

Guatemala. '97 49,000 

Greenland, '90 500,000 



Popula- 
tion 

100,000,000 

63,441 
47,565 
15,123 
34,277 
4,829,411 

3,271,426 

294,940 

1,572,797 

1,535,632 

10,516 



Area in Popula- 
Square Miles tion 

Haiti (island), '97 2S,250 1,380,000 

Honduras, '93 46,400 380,000 

Jamaica, '97 4,200 706.394 

Mexico, '95 767,005 12.636.SS7 

Newfoundland, '92 42,200 203,500 

Nicaragua, '95 49,000 360,000 

St. Croix, '90 84 19.7S3 

St. John, '90 21 984 

St. Thomas, '90 32 12,019 

Salvador, '94 8,300 803,534 

United States. See p. 550. 



548 



APPENDIX II 



549 



Area in Popula- 
Square Miles tion 

South America. - »7 6,837,000 40,000,000 

Argentina, '95 1,778,195 3,954,911 

Bolivia, '93 567,480 2,019.549 

Brazil, '92 3,209,878 18,000,000 

Chile, '95 290,829 2,527,320 

Colombia, 'SI 513,938 3,878,600 

Ecuador, -.89 120,000 1,271,S61 

Falkland Isds., '97 6,500 2,050 

Galapagos Isds., '89 2,400 200 

Guiana, British, '96 109,000 283,315 

Guiana, Dutch, '96 46,060 64,372 

Guiana, French, '91 46,850 22,710 

Juan Fernandez 36 

Paraguay, '97 98,000 730.00(1 

Peru, '97 449,000 5,000,000 

South Georgia Isds 1,000 uninhabited 

Tobago, '97 114 20,785 

Trinidad Isd., '97 1,754 254,51S 

Uruguay, '98 72,110 840.725 

Venezuela, '91 593,943 2,323,527 

Europe, '97 3,850,000 374,000,000 

Andorra, '97 175 6,000 

Austria, '90 115,903 23,S95.413 

Austria-Hungary, '91 .. .240,942 41,359,204 

Balearic Isles, '87 1,860 312.593 

Belgium, '97 11,373 6,586,593 

British Empire, '98. . . .11,370,000 383.900,000 

British Isles, '96 120,979 3S.ln4.9T5 

Bulgaria, '90 38,0SO 3,310,713 

Corsica, '96 3.377 290.168 

Crete, '85 3,326 294,190 

Denmark, '90 15,289 2,1S5,335 

England. '91 50,S67 27,483.490 

Faroe Isds., '90 514 12,955 

France, '96 204,092 38,517,975 

German Empire, '00 ... . 208,880 56,345,014 

Great Britain. '91 SS.094 33,028,172 

Greece, '96 25,014 2,433.806 

Hebrides Isds., '97 3,000 100.000 

Hungary, '90 125,039 17.463.791 

Iceland,' '97 39,756 ' 70,927 

Ireland, '91 -. 32.5S3 4,704,750 

Italy, "'98 110.646 31,667.946 

Liechtenstein, '91 65 9,434 

Luxemburg, '95 998 217.583 

Malta, '97 95 177,745 

Monaco, '90 8 13,304 

Montenegro, '97 3.630 228.000 

Netherlands, '97 12.648 5,0(14,204 

Norway, '91 124,445 2,000,917 

Orkney Isds., '91 376 30,453 



Area in Popula- 
Square Miles tion 

Portugal, '90 36,038 5,049,729 

Prussia, '95 134.603 31,855,123 

Roumania. '93 4S,307 5,800,000 

Russia, '97 2,095,616 106,191,795 

Russian Empire, '96.. .8,660,282 129,000,000 

San Marino, '96 32 8,500 

Sardinia, '98 9.294 766,094 

Scotland, '91 29,785 4.025,647 

Servia, '95 19,050 2,312,484 

Shetland Isds., '91 551 2S,711 

Sicily, '98 9,936 3,603,310 

Spain, '87 197,670 17,565,632 

Sweden, '97 172,S76 5.009,632 

Switzerland, '97 1 5,976 3,082,989 

Turkey, '98 62,744 5,711,000 

Turkish Empire. '97.. .1,576,677 38,790,736 

Wales, '91 7,442 1,519,035 

Asia, with Islands, '97 ... . 17,255,890 831,000,000 

Aden, '91 80 44,079 

Afghanistan, '97 215,400 4,000,000 

Arabia, '97 S45.000 6,000,000 

Baluchistan, '97 145,417 500,000 

Bhutan, '97 16,800 200,000 

Bokhara, '97 92,000 2,500,000 

Burma, '91 171,430 7,605.560 

Cevlon, '91 25,333 3,009,461 

China (proper), '97 ....1,336,841 386,000,000 

Chinese Empire, '97.. .4,218,401 402,680,000 

Chinese Turkestan, '97.. 431, 800 580,000 

Cyprus. '91 3,584 209,286 

Formosa, '96 13,541 1,996,989 

French India, '97 197 286,913 

French Indo-China, '97.-294,782 16,000,000 

India, '91 1.559,603 287,123,850 

Japan, '96 161.196 43,705,253 

Khiva, '97 22,320 750,000 

Korea, '97 82,000 10,500,000 

Manchuria, '97 362,310 7,500,000 

Mongolia, '97 1,288,000 2.000,000 

Nepal, '97 54,000 2-5,000,000 

Oman, '97 82,000 1,500,000 

Palestine. '97 10,000 400,000 

Persia, '97 628,000 9,000,000 

Portuguese Indies, '87 ... .1,390 494,836 

Russia in Asia, '97 . . . .6,564,778 22.697,469 

Russian Turkestan, '97.. 257,134 3,898,106 

Siam, '96 300,000 5,000,000 

Siberia, '97 4,S33,496 5,727,000 

Straits Settlements, '91 . . . .1.255 512,342 

Sungaria, '96 147,950 600,000 

Tibet, '97 651 ,500 6,000,000 

Turkey in Asia, '98 650,097 16,823,500 



550 



APPENDIX II 



Area in Popu la- 
Square Miles tion 

Africa, - 97 11,508,793 170,000,000 

Abyssinia, "97 462,000 5,000,000 

Algeria (Fr.), '90 134,474 4,430,000 

Ashanti (Br. ), '91 15,000 1,473,882 

British Central and 

South Africa, '97 500,000 3,000,000 

British East Africa 1,000,000 unknown 

British Somaliland, '91 . . . .6S,000 240,000 

Canary Isds. (Sp.), '87 2,808 291,025 

Cape Colony (Br.), '91 .. .270,925 1,766,040 

Cape Verde Isds., '90 1,4S0 114,130 

Egypt, '97 400,000 9,734,405 

Egyptian Sudan, '82 950,000 10,000,000 

Eritrea (Italy), '93 88,500 450.000 

French Sudan, '97 3.54.000 2,860,000 

French Kongo, '97 496,920 8,950.000 

French Somaliland, '97 8,640 30,000 

French Territory, '9T.. 3,288,034 30,358,890 

Gambia (Br.), '97 2,700 50,000 

German East Afr., '97.. .384,000 4,000,000 
German Southwest Africa, 

'97 322,450 202,628 

German Territory, '98.. .930,760 10,200,000 

Gold Coast (Br.), '97 46,600 1,473,8S2 

Italian Somaliland, '98.. .100,000 400,000 

Kamerun (Ger.), '93 191,130 3,500,000 

Kongo State, '93 900,000 30,000,000 

Liberia, '97 14,360 1,063,0110 

Madagascar (Fr.), '97. .. .227,750 3,500,000 

Madeira Islands, "90 505 134.000 

Mauritius (Br.), '91 705 371,655 

Morocco, '89 - 219.000 5,0,10,000 

Natal (Br.), '98 35,000 829,005 

Niger Territories (Br.), 

'99 500.000 20-35,000,000 

Orange River Col., '90. .. .48,326 207,503 

Portuguese East Afr., '97. 301, 000 3,120,000 



Area in Popula- 
Square Miles tion 

Portuguese Guinea, "97 4,440 820,000 

Portuguese West Afr., "97, 190,000 5,000,000 

Reunion Island (Fr.), '97 970 171 720 

St. Helena (Br.), '91 47 4^116 

Sierra Leone ( Br, ), "97 30.000 250,000 

Spanish Africa, '9^ 24:i,s77 l:-!0.ooo 

Togo, '98 33,000 2,500,000 

Transvaal Colony, '98 119,139 1,094,156 

Tripoli (Turk.). ''97 398.900 1,300.000 

Tunis (Fr.), '97 50,840 1,500,000 

Zanzibar (Br.), '97 640 150,000 

Australia, "9; 2,910,691 3,030,570 

New South Wales, '98. . .310,700 1,335,800 

Northern Territory, '97.. - 4,820 

Queensland, '97. .' 668,497 484.700 

South Australia, "97 903,090 358,224 

Tasmania, '91 26,385 146,667 

Victoria, '98 87,884 1,169.434 

Western Australia, '97. ..975,920 161,924 

East Indies and Larger Islands 
of Pacific. 

Borneo, '97 243,843 1,575,000 

Celebes, '97 71,470 1,997,S60 

Fiji Islands, '97 S,045 121, 79S 

Hawaiian Islands, '00 6,640 154,001 

Java, '97 50,554 25,697,701 

Molucca Isds., '97 43.S64 399,208 

New Caledonia. '97 7,630 51,000 

New Guinea, '97 312,329 800,000 

New Zealand, '96 104,471 743,214 

Philippine Islands, '97. . ..14,326 7,000,000 

Samoa Islands, '97 1,701 34.000 

Solomon Islands 16,300 175,000 

Sumatra, '97 161,612 3,209,037 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion, 1900 

Alabama 52,250 1,828,697 

Alaska 577.390 63,441 

Arizona 113,020 122.931 

Arkansas 53,850 1,311,564 

California 15S,360 1,485,053 

Colorado 103,925 539.700 

Connecticut 4,990 903,355 

Delaware 2,050 184,735 

District of Columbia 70 278,718 

Florida 5S,680 528.542 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion, 1900 

Georgia 59.475 2,216,331 

Guam, '87 ISO 8,561 

Hawaiian Islands 6,640 154,001 

Idaho 84,800 161,772 

Illinois 56,650 4,821,550 

Indiana 36,350 2,516,462 

Indian Territory 31,400 391,960 

Iowa 56,025 2,231,853 

Kansas 82,080 1,470,495 

Kentucky 40,400 2,147,174 



APPENDIX II 



551 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion, 1900 

Louisiana 43,720 1,381,625 

Maine 33.040 694.466 

Maryland 12,210 1,190,050 

Massachusetts S,315 2,805,346 

Michigan 58,915 2,420,982 

Minnesota 83,365 1,751,394 

Mississippi 46,810 1,551,270 

Missouri 69,415 3,106.665 

Montana 146,080 243.329 

Nebraska 77,510 1,068,539 

Nevada 110,700 42,335 

New Hampshire 9,305 411.588 

New Jersey 7,815 1,833.609 

New Mexico 122,530 195,310 

New York 49,170 7,268,012 

North Carolina 52,250 1,893,810 

North Dakota 70,795 319,146 

Ohio.... 41,060 4,157,545 

Oklahoma 39,030 398,245 

Oregon 96,030 413,536 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion, 1900 

Pennsylvania 45,215 6,302,115 

Philippine Islands, '97. . .114,326 7,000,000 

Porto Rico, '99 3,550 953,243 

Rhode Island 1,250 42S,556 

South Carolina 30,570 1,340,316 

South Dakota 77,650 401,570 

Tennessee 42,050 2,020,616 

Texas 265,780 3,04S,710 

Tutuila 55 3,800 

Utah 84,970 276,749 

Vermont 9,565 343,641 

Virginia 42,450 1,854,184 

Washington 69,180 518,103 

West Virginia 24.7S0 958,S00 

Wisconsin 56,040 2,069,042 

Wyoming 97,890 92,531 

United States, total 3,7>S,000 81,266,603 

United States (without Alaska, 

Philippine Isds., etc.) ...S,025,60O 76,0S7,350 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD 



Population 

1. London, England, '9S 4,504,766 

Greater London. '9S 0,408,321 

2. New York, U.S.. '00 3,437,202 

3. Paris, France, '96 2,536,834 

4. Canton, China, '97. ... 2.500,000 

5. Berlin, Germany, '00 1,884,345 

6. Chicago, U.S., '00 1,698,575 

7. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, '90. .1,364,548 

8. Tokio, Japan, '96 : 1,299,941 

9. Philadelphia, U.S., '00 1,293.697 

10. St. Petersburg, Russia, '97 1,267,023 

11. Moscow, Russia, '97 9S8,614 

12. Tientsin, China, '97 950,000 



Population 

13. Peking, China, '98 900,000 

14. Constantinople, Turkey, '85 373,565 

15. Calcutta, India, '91 861,764 

16. Bombay, India, '91 821,764 

17. Hankau, China, '97 800.000 

IS. Buenos Aires, Argentina, '98 . . . .753,000 

19. Glasgow, Scotland, '98 724,349 

20. Hamburg, Germany, '00 704,069 

21. Hangchau, China, '97 700,000 

22. Fuohau, China, '97 650,000 

23. Warsaw, Russia, '97 638,209 

24. Liverpool, England, '98 633,645 

25. St. Louis, U.S., '00 575,238 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900 



Population 

1. New York, N. Y 3,437.202 

2. Chicago, 111 1 ,698.575 

3. Philadelphia, Pa 1,293.697 

4. St. Louis, Mo 575,23S 

5. Boston, Mass 560,892 

6. Baltimore, Md 508,957 

7. Cleveland, Ohio 381,768 

8. Buffalo, N.Y 352.387 

9. San Francisco. Cal 342.782 

10. Cincinnati, Ohio 325,902 

11. Pittsburg, Pa 321,616 

12. New Orleans. La 287,104 

13. Detroit, Mich 285,704 



Population 

14. Milwaukee, Wis 285,315 

15. Washington, D.C 278,718 

16. Newark, N.J 246,070 

17. Jersey City, N.J 206,433 

18. Louisville, "Ky 204,731 

19. Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 

20. Providence, R.I 175,597 

21. Indianapolis, Ind 169.164 

22. Kansas City, Mo 163,752 

23. St. Paul, Minn 163,065 

24. Rochester, N.Y 162,608 

25. Denver, Colo 133,859 



552 



APPENDIX II 



CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH 25,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS 
IN 1900; AND A FEW OTHERS, MOSTLY MENTIONED IN THE BOOK 

(Cuban cities listed here) 



Population 

Akron, Ohio 42,728 

Albany, N.Y 94,151 

Albuquerque, N.M 0,238 

Allegheny, Pa 129, si)6 

AJlentown, Pa 85,416 

Altoona, Pa 88,973 

Annapolis, Md. 8,402 

Ashland, Wis. 13,074 

Atchison, Kan 15,722 

Atlanta, Ga S9,872 

Atlantic City, N.J 27,838 

Auburn, N.Y 30,345 

Augusta, Ga 89,441 

Augusta, Me 1 1,683 

Austin, Tex 22,258 

Baltimore, Md 50S.957 

Bangor, Me. 21,850 

Bath, Me 10,477 

Baton Rouge, La 11,269 

Bay City, Mich 27,628 

Bayonne, N.J. 32,722 

Binghaniton, N.Y. , 39,647 

Birmingham. Ala .88,415 

Bismarck, N.D 3,319 

Boise, Idaho 5,957 

Boston, Mass 560,892 

Bridgeport, Conn 70,996 

Brockton, Mass 40,063 

Buffalo, N.Y 352,387 

Burlington, Vt ..18,640 

Butte, Mont 30,470 

Cambridge, Mass 91,SS6 

Camden, N.J 75,935 

Canton, Ohio 30,667 

Carson City, Nev 2,100 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa. . '. 25.656 

Charleston, S.C 55,S07 

Charleston, W.Va 11,099 

Charlotte, N.C 18,091 

Chattanooga, Tenn 32,490 

Chelsea, Mass. 84,072 

Chester, Pa 33,988 

Cheyenne, Wyo 14,087 

Chicago, 111 1,698,575 

Cincinnati, Ohio .325,902 

Cleveland, Ohio 381, 76S 

Colorado Springs, Colo 21,085 

Columbia, S.C 21,108 

Columbus, Ga. 17,614 

Columbus, Ohio 125,500 



Population 

Concord, N.H 19,632 

Council Bluffs, Iowa 25,802 

Covington, Ky 42,938 

Cripple Creek, Colo 10,147 

Dallas, Tex 42,638 

Danville, Va 16,520 

Davenport, Iowa 35,254 

Dayton, Ohio 85,333 

Denver, Colo 133,859 

Des Moines, Iowa 62,139 

Detroit, Mich 285,704 

Dover, Del 3,329 

Dubuque, Iowa 36,297 

Duluth, Minn. 52,909 

Durham, N.C 6,679 

Easton, Pa 25,288 

East St. Louis, 111 29,655 

Elizabeth, N J 52,130 

Elmira, N.Y 35,072 

El Paso, Tex 15,906 

Erie, Pa 52,733 

Evansville, Ind 59,007 

Fall River, Mass. 104,663 

Fitchburg, Mass 31,531 

Fort Wayne, Ind 45,115 

Fort Worth, Tex 26,688 

Frankfort, Ky 9,487 

Galveston, Tex 37,789 

Gloucester, Mass 26.121 

Grand Rapids, Mich 87,565 

Greenville, S.C 11,860 

Guthrie, Ok 10,006 

Harrisburg, Pa 50,167 

Hartford, Conn 79,850 

Havana, Cuba, '99 235,981 

Haverhill, Mass 37,175 

Helena, Mont 10,770 

Hoboken, N.J 59.304 

Ilolyoke, Mass 45.712 

Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands 89,306 

Houston, Tex 44,633 

Indianapolis, Ind 109,164 

Jackson, Mich 25.180 

Jackson, Miss 7,S16 

Jacksonville, Fla 28,429 

Jefferson City, Mo 9,664 

Jersey City, N.J 206,433 

Johnstown, Pa 35.980 

Joliet, 111. 29.858 

Joplin, Mo 26,023 



APPENDIX II 



553 



Population 

Juneau, Alaska 1 ,S64 

Kansas City, Kan 51,418 

Kansas City, Mo 103,752 

Key West, Fla IT, 114 

Knoxville, Tenn 32,637 

Lacrosse, Wis 28,895 

Lancaster, Pa. 41,459 

Lansing, Mich 16,485 

Lawrence, Mass (52,559 

Leadville, Colo 12,455 

Lewiston, Me 23,761 

Lexington, Ky 26,309 

Lincoln, Neb. 40,169 

Little Rock, Ark 38,307 

Los Angeles, Cal 102,479 

Louisville, Ky 204,731 

Lowell, Mass 94,969 

Lynchburg, Va 18.S91 

Lynn, Mass 68,513 

Madison, Wis 19,164 

Maiden, Mass 33,664 

Manchester. N.H 56,987 

Manila, Philippines, 'S7 154,062 

Marquette, Mich 10,058 

Matanzas, Cuba, '99 45,282 

McKeesport, Pa 34,227 

Memphis, Tenn 102,320 

Milwaukee, Wis 285,315 

Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 

Mobile, Ala -. 38,469 

Montgomery, Ala 30,346 

Montpelier, Vt 6,266 

Nashville, Tenn Su.865 

Newark, N.J 246,070 

New Bedford, Mass 62,442 

New Britain, Conn 25,998 

Newcastle, Pa 28,339 

New Haven, Conn 108,027 

New Orleans, La 2S7,104 

Newport, Ky 2S,301 

Newton, Mass 33,587 

New York, N.Y 3,437,202 

Norfolk, Va 46,624 

Oakland, Cal 66,960 

Ogden, Utah : 16,313 

Oklahoma, Ok 10,037 

Olympia. Wash 4,082 

Omaha, Neb 102,555 

Oshkosh, Wis 28,284 

Passaic, N.J 27,777 

Paterson, N.J 105,171 

Pawtucket, E.I 39.231 

Peoria, 111 56,100 

Philadelphia, Pa 1 ,293,697 

Phcenix, Ariz 5,544 



Population 

Pierre, S.D 2,306 

Pittsburg, Pa 321.616 

Plymouth, Mass 9,562 

Portland, Me 50,145 

Portland, Ore 90,426 

Ponce, Porto Rico, '99 27,952 

Providence, R. 1 175,597 

Pueblo, Colo 2s,157 

Quincy, 111. 36,252 

Racine, Wis 29,102 

Ealeigb, N.C 13,643 

Reading, Pa 78,961 

Richmond, Va 85,050 

Roanoke, Va 21,445 

Rochester, N.Y 162,608 

Rockford, 111 31,051 

Rutland, Vt 11,499 

Sacramento, Cal 29,282 

Saginaw, Mich 42,345 

St. Joseph, Mo 102,979 

St. Louis, Mo 575,238 

St. Paul, Minn 163,065 

Salem, Mass 35,956 

Salem, Ore 4,258 

Salt Lake City, Utah 53,531 

San Antonio, Tex 53,321 

San Francisco, Cal 342,782 

San J uan, Porto Rico, '99 32,048 

Santa Fe, N.M 5,603 

Santiago, Cuba, '99 45,47S 

Savannah, Ga 54,244 

Schenectady, N.Y 31,682 

Scranton, Pa 102,026 

Seattle, Wash S0.671 

Sioux City, Iowa 33,111 

Sioux Falls, S.D 10,266 

Sitka, Alaska 1,396 

Somerville, Mass 61 ,643 

South Bend, Ind 35,999 

South Omaha, Neb 26,001 

Spokane, Wash 36,848 

Springfield, 111 34,159 

Springfield, Mass 62,059 

Springfield, Ohio 38,253 

Superior, Wis 31,091 

Syracuse. N.Y 10S,374 

Tacoma, Wash 37,714 

Tallahassee, Fla 2,981 

Taunton, Mass 31,036 

Terre Haute, Ind 36,673 

Toledo, Ohio 131, S22 

Topeka, Kan 33,608 

Trenton, N.J 73,307 

Troy, N.Y 60,651 

Tucson, Ariz 7,531 



554 



APPENDIX II 



Population 

Utica, N. Y 50,383 

"Virginia City, Nev 2,695 

Washing-ton', D.C. 278,718 

Waterbury, Conn 45,859 

Wheeling, W.Va 3S,S78 

Wichita, Kan 24,671 

Wilkes Bane, Pa 51,721 



Population 

Williamsport, Pa 28,757 

Wilmington, Del 76,508 

Woonsocket, Li.1 28,204 

Worcester, Mass 118,421 

Yonkers, N. Y 47,931 

York, Pa 33,703 

Youngstown, Ohio 44,885 



FOREIGN CITIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 



Population 

Aachen, Germany, '95 110,551 

Abbeokuta, Niger Terr., '97 150,000 

Aberdeen, Scotland. '98 140,381 

Adelaide, Australia, '97 146,125 

Aden, Aden, '91 41,910 

Adiz Abeba, Abyssinia, '97 3,000 

Alexandria, Egypt, '97 319.766 

Algiers, Algeria, '91 v_',r>s5 

Amsterdam, Netherlands, '97 503, 2n> 

Antwerp, Belgium, '97 271,284 

Archangel, Russia, '97 17,802 

Arequipa, Peru, '97 30,000 

Asuncion, Paraguay, '95 45,000 

Athens, Greece, '96 11 1,480 

Auckland, New Zealand, '96 31,424 

Bagdad, Turkey in Asia, '85 145,000 

Bahia, Brazil, '90 174,412 

Baku, Russia, '97 1 12,253 

Ballarat, Australia, '97 46,137 

Bangkok, Siani, '96 250,000 

Barcelona, Spain, '87 272,481 

Barmen, Germany, '95 126.992 

Basel, Switzerland, '97 S9.687 

Batavia, Java, '91 104.590 

Belfast, Ireland, '91 255,950 

Belgrade, Servia, '95 59,115 

Benares, India, '91 219.407 

Bendigo, Australia, '97 43,075 

Berbera, Br. Somaliland, '97 30,000 

Bergen, Norway, '91 53,684 

Berlin, Germany, '00 1,884,345 

Berne, Switzerland, '97 49,030 

Bethany, Holy Land, '90 1,105 

Bethlehem, Holy Land, '97 5,000 

Bilbao, Spain, '87 50,772 

Birmingham, England, '98 510,343 

Bloemfontein, South Africa, '90 3,379 

Bogota, Colombia, '86 120.000 

Bologna, Italy, '97 153.206 

Bombay, India, '91 821,764 



Population 

Bordeaux, France, '96 256,906 

Bradford, England, '98 233,737 

Bremen, Germany, '95 141,894 

Breslau, Germany, '00 422,415 

Brindisi, Italy, '97 14,000 

Brisbane, Australia, '97 ^ . .25.889 

Bristol. England, '98 316,900 

Brussels, Belgium, '97 551,011 

Bucharest, Roumania, '94 . - 232,000 

Budapest, Austria-Hungary, '90 505,763 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, '9S 753,000 

Cadiz, Spain, '87 62,531 

Cairo, Egypt, '97 570,062 

Calcutta, India, '91 861,764 

Callao, Peru, '90 35,492 

Cambridge, England, '91 36,983 

Canton, China, '97 2,500,000 

Cape Town, Cape Colony, '91 51,251 

Caracas, Venezuela, '91 72,429 

Cardiff, Wales, '98 177,770 

Cartagena, Colombia, '86 20,000 

Cartagena, Spain, '87 84,171 

Catania, Italy, '97 129,651 

Cayenne, French Guiana, '97 12,351 

Cettinge, Montenegro, '97 2,920 

Chemnitz, Germany, '00 206,584 

Chengtu, China, '96 250,000 

Christchurch, '96 16.964 

Christiania, Norway, '98 200.000 

Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela, '91 11,6S6 

Cologne, Germany, '00 376,085 

Colon, Colombia, ''97 3,000 

Constantinople, Turkey, 'S5 873,505 

Copenhagen, Denmark, '90 312,859 

Cordoba, Argentina, '95 47,609 

Cordoba, Spain, '87 55,614 

Cork, Ireland, '91 75,345 

Cuzco, Peru, 'S9 22,000 

Damascus, Turkey in Asia, '85 150,000 

Danzig, German}', '95 125,005 



APPENDIX II 



555 



Population 

Dawson, Canada, '97 ' 10,000 

Delhi, India, '91 192,579 

Dover, England, '91 33,418 

Dresden, Germany, '95 336,-140 

Dublin, Ireland, '91 245,001 

Dundee, Scotland, '98 104,575 

Dunedin, New Zealand, '96 22,815 

Durban, Natal, '98 39,245 

Edinburgh, Scotland, '98 295,02s 

Elberfeld, Germany, '95 139,337 

Essen, Germany, '95 96,128 

Fachau, China, ''98 400,ooo 

Fiume, Austria-Hungary, '90 29,494 

Fez, Morocco, 'S9 " 140,000 

Florence, Italy, '97 209,540 

Frankfort, Germany, "00 287,813 

Fredericton, Canada, '91 6,502 

Freetown, Sierra Leone, '91 30,1)33 

Fuchau, China, '97 650,000 

Geneva, Switzerland, '97 86,535 

Genoa, Italy, '97 228,862 

Georgetown, British Guiana, '91 53,176 

Ghent, Belgium, '97 161,125 

Gibraltar, Spanish Pen., '97 26,203 

Glasgow, Scotland, '98 724,349 

Gothenburg, Sweden, '97 120,552 

Grenada, Spain, '87 73.006 

Grimsby, England, '91 51.934 

Guatemala, Guatemala, '93 72.102 

Guayaquil, Ecuador, '98 50,000 

Hyderabad, India, '91 415,039 

Hague, Netherlands, '97 196,325 

Halifax, Canada, '91 38,556 

Halle, Germany, '00 156,503 

Hamburg, Germany, '00 704,069 

Hamilton, Canada, '91 4S,9S0 

Hammerfest, Norway, '91 2,239 

Hangchau, China, '97 700,000 

Hankau, China, '97 800,000 

Hanover, Germany, '95 209,535 

Havre, France, '96 119,470 

Hebron, Holy Land, '97 10,000 

Helsingfors, Russia, '96 77,4S4 

Hobart, Tasmania, '91 24,905 

Hongkong, China, '99 259,312 

Hue, French Ind. China, '97 30,000 

Hull, England, '98 229. 8S7 

Iquique, Chile, '95 33.031 

Irkutsk, Siberia, '96 51,434 

Jerusalem, Holy Land, '85 41,000 

Johannesburg, Transvaal, '96 102,078 

Joppa, Holy Land, '97 23,000 

Kabul, Afghanistan, '97 70,000 

Khartum, Egyptian Sudan, '98 25,000 

Khelat, Baluchistan, '97 14,000 



Population 

Kiev, Russia, '97 247,432 

Kimberley, Cape Colony, '91 28,718 

Kingston, Jamaica, '91 46,542 

Kioto, Japan, '96 341,101 

Krefeld, Germany, '95 107,245 

Kumassi, Ashanti, '97 18,000 

La Guaira, Venezuela, '97 8,000 

La Paz, Bolivia, '93 65,000 

La Plata, Argentina, '95 45,410 

Lassa, Tibet, '97 25,000 

Leeds, England, '98 416,618 

Leghorn, 1 taly, '97 104,536 

Leicester, England. '98 208,002 

Leipzig, Germany, '00 455,120 

Leith, Scotland, '98 76,277 

Libreville, French Kongo, '97 3,000 

Liege, Belgium, '97 167,305 

Lille, France, '96 216,276 

Lima, Peru, '91 103,956 

Limoges, France, '96 77,703 

Lisbon, Portugal, '91 301,206 

Liverpool, England, '98 038,045 

Loanda, Port. W. Africa, '97 14,000 

Lodz, Russia, '97 315.209 

London, Canada, '91 31,977 

London, England, '91 4,504,766 

London, Greater, '98 6,408,321 

Lourenco Marquez, Port. E. Af. '97... 8,000 

Lucerne, Switzerland, '99 23,700 

Lucknow, India, '91 273,028 

Lyon, France, '96 466,028 

Madras, India, '91 452.518 

Madrid, Spain, '87 470/2S3 

Magdeburg, Germany, '95 214,424 

Malaga, Spain, '87 134,016 

Manaos, Brazil, '93 20,000 

Manchester, England, '98 539,079 

Mandalay, Burma, '91 188,815 

Marseille, France, '96 442,239 

Maskat, Oman, '97 40,000 

Mecca, Turkey, '85 60,000 

Melbourne, Australia, '97 458,610 

Messina, Italy, '97 152,648 

Metz, Germany, '95 59,794 

Mexico City, Mexico, '95 344,377 

Milan, Italy, '97 470,558 

Mocha, Turkey in Asia, '97 5,000 

Mombasa, Br.'E. Africa, '97 30,000 

Monrovia, Liberia, '97 5.000 

Montevideo, Uruguay, '97 249,251 

Montreal, Canada, '91 216,650 

Morocco, Morocco. '97 50,000 

Moscow, Russia, '97 98S,614 

Munich. Germany, '00 49S.503 

Nagoya, Japan, '96 242,085 



556 



APPENDIX II 



Population 

Naples, Italy, '97 586,073 

Nazareth, Holy Land, '97 7,500 

Newcastle, England, '98 '223.021 

Nice, France, '9(5 93,766 

Nijni Novgorod, Russia, '97 95,12-1 

Nottingham, England, '9;l 239,384 

Nuremberg, Germany. '00 260.743 

Odessa, Russia, '97 405.041 

Oporto, Portugal, '90 138,860 

Osaka, Japan, '96 503,690 

Ottawa, Canada, '91 44,154 

Oxford, England, '91 45,742 

Palermo, Italy, '97 2S7.972 

Panama, Colombia, '86 SO.OoO 

Para, Brazil, '92 65,000 

Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, '96 30,000 

Paris, France, '96 2,536,834 

Peking, China, '98 900.000 

Pernambuco, Brazil, '90 111.556 

Perth, West Australia, '97 37,929 

Pieterniaritzburg, Natal, '98 24.595 

Piraeus, Greece, '96 42,169 

Pisa, Italy, '97 65,516 

Port Arthur, Russia in Asia, 

Port au Prince, Haiti, '97 60,000 

Port Said, Egypt, '97 42,095 

Portsmouth, England. '9S 186,618 

Posen, Germany, '00 1 16,151 

Potsdam, Germany. '95 58.455 

Prague, Austria-Hungary. '90 184,109 

Pretoria. Transvaal, '96 10,000 

Pueblo, Mexico, '95 91,917 

Quebec, Canada, '91 63,090 

Queenstown, Ireland, '91 9,082 

Quito, Ecuador, '97.'. 80,000 

Rangoon. Burma. '91 180.324 

Reims, France. '96 107,963 

Riga, Russia, '97 282.943 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. '90 522.651 

Rome, Italy, '97 487,066 

Rosario. Argentina, '95 94,025 

Rotterdam, Netherlands, '97 298.433 

Roubaix, France. '96 124,661 

Rouen, France. '96 113,219 

St. Etienne, France, '96 136,030 

St. John, Canada, '91 39.179 

St. John's. Newfoundland, '92 31,142 

St. Petersburg, Russia, '97 1,267.023 

Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, '97. ..54.900 
San Luis Potosi, Mexico, '95 69,676 

San Salvador, Salvador, '94 25.000 

Santiago, Chile, '97 302.131 

Santos. Brazil, '97 15,000 

Sao Paulo. Brazil, '92 1 00,000 

Seoul, Korea, '97 250.000 



Population 

Seville, Spain, '87 143,182 

Sevres, France, '91 6,902 

Shanghai, China, '97 457,000 

Sheffield, England, '98 356.478 

Siangtan, China, '98 1,000,000 

Singanfu, China, '98 600,000 

Singapore, Straits Settlements, '91 .. .160,000 

Smyrna, Turkey, 'S5 200,000 

Sofia, Bulgaria, "'93 46,593 

Southampton, England, "91 65.K25 

Stettin, Germany, '00 20C.988 

Stockholm, Sweden, '97 288,602 

Strassburg. Germany, '95 135,688 

Stuttgart, Germany," '95 158,321 

Suchau, China, '97" 500,000 

Sucre, Bolivia, '97 19,000 

Suez, Egypt, '82 10.919 

Swansea, Wales, '99 103,722 

Sydney, Australia, '97 417,250 

Tananarivo, Madagascar, '97 90,000 

Tangier, Morocco, '89 80,000 

Tashkend, Russian Turkestan. '97.. .150.414 

Teheran, Persia, '97 210.000 

Tiberias, Holy Land, '97 3,000 

Tientsin, China, '97 950,000 

Tiflis, Russia, '97 160,645 

Timbukto, Sudan, '97 20,000 

Tokio, Japan. '96 1.299.941 

Toronto, Canada, '91 1 si. 220 

Trebizond, Turkey in A sia, '97 35,000 

Trieste, Austria-Hungary, '90 158,344 

Tripoli, Tripoli. '85 .... ." 30,000 

Trondhjem, Norway. '91 29,162 

Tunis, Tunis, '96 . ." 153.000 

Turin, Italy, '97 351,855 

Upernivik, Greenland, '70 700 

Valencia, Spain, 'S7 170,763 

Valparaiso, Chile, '97 139.038 

Vancouver, Canada. '91 13.685 

Venice, Italy, '97 155,S99 

Vera Cruz, Mexico, '95 88,993 

Verseilles, France, '96 54,874 

Victoria, Canada, '91 16,841 

Vienna, Austria-Hungary. '90 1.364.548 

Vladivostok, Siberia, '96' .' 43^843 

Warsaw. Russia. '97 63S.209 

Wellington, New Zealand. '96 37,441 

West Ham, England. '98 280.654 

Winnipeg, Canada, '95 38,100 

Wuchang, China, '9S 300,000 

Yarmouth, Canada. '91 6,0S9 

Yokoba, Niger Terr.. '97 50,000 

Yokohama, Japan. '96 179,502 

Zanzibar (British), '97 30.000 

Zurich. Switzerland, '97 151,994 



APPENDIX II 



557 



ELEVATION OF SOME PLATEAUS AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS 



Feet 

Ab3"ssinian Plateau 5-7,000 

Aconcagua, Andes, Argentina (high- 
est in South America) 22,860 

Ararat, Turkey in Asia 17,325 

Mt. Blanc, Alps, France {highest in 

Alps) 15,781 

Bolivian Plateau 10-13,000 

Brazilian Plateau . . : 2-2,500 

Chimborazo, Andes, Ecuador 20,49? 

Cotopaxi, Andes, Ecuador 19,613 

Elbruz, Caucasus, Russia IS, 200 

Etna, Sicily 10,835 

Everest, Himalayas, Nepal {highest 

known in world) 29.002 

Fremont Peak, Rocky Mts., Wy. . . 13,790 

Fujiyama' Japan 12,305 

He'cfa, Iceland 5,110 

Kenia, Africa 19,000 

Kilimanjaro, Africa (highest known 

in Africa) 19,780 

Kosciusko. Australia (highest in 

Australia) 7,336 



Feet 



Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada (high- 
est known in Canada) 19,500 

McKinley, Alaska (highest knoicn 

in North America) 20,464 

Mauna Kea, Hawaiian Islands 13,805 

Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 13,675 

Mexican Plateau 5-6,000 

Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., N.C., 

(highest in East'n U.S.) 6,711 

Orizaba, Mexico (highest in Mexico) 18,314 

Pikes Peak, Rocky Mts., Colorado, 14,108 

Popocatapetl, Mexico 17,798 

Rainier, Cascade Mts., Washington, 14,526 

St. Elias, Alaska 18,100 

Shasta, Cascade Mts., California. .. 14,380 

Tibet Plateau 10-15,000 

United States, Western Plateau .... 5-6,000 

Vesuvius, Italv 4,200 

Washington, "White Mts, N.H. 

(highest in Northeastern U.S.). 6,293 
Whitney, Sierra Nevada, California 

(highest in Western U.S.) 14,898 



SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 



Xortli America 



Basin 
Length Area 
in Miles Sq. Miles 



Colorado 2,000 

Columbia 1,400 

Mackenzie 2,000 

Missouri 3,000 

Missouri-Missis- 
sippi 4,300 



225.049 
216.537 
590,000 
527,155 



Nelson 1,732 432, 000 

Rio Grande 1,S00 240.000 

St. Lawrence . . .2,200 530,000 

Vukon 2,000 440,000 

South America 

Amazon 3.300 2,500,000 

Orinoco 1.350 366,000 

Plata 2,580 1,200,000 

Sao Francisco ..1.S00 200,000 



Europe 

Danube 1.770 

Dnieper 1.200 

Dwina 1,000 

Elbe 725 

Po 400 



300.000 

242,000 

140,000 

55,000 

27,000 



Rhine 800 75.000 

Rhone 500 38.000 



Ocean 

Pacific 
Pacific 
Arctic 
Atlantic 



1,257,000 Atlantic 



Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Pacific 



Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 



Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Arctic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 



Basin 

Length Area 

in Miles Sq. Miles 
Europe 

Seine 482 30,300 

Thames 22S 6.100 

Volga 2,400 563,300 



Amur 2,S00 

Brahmaputra.. .1,S00 

Ganges 1,500 

Hoang-ho 2.700 

Indus 1.800 



520,000 
425,000 
440,000 
570,000 
372,700 



Irawadi 1.500 158,000 

Lena 2,800 950,000 

Mekong 2.800 2S0,000 

Ob 3,200 1,000.000 

Yangtse-kiang. . 3,200 548.000 



Yenisei 3,000 1,500,000 Arctic 



Africa 

Kongo 2,900 

Niger 2,600 

Nile 3,400 

Zambesi 1,500 



1.200.000 
563.300 

1.273.000 
600,000 



Australia 

Darling 1,100 

Murray 1,000 270.000 



Ocean 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Caspian 



Pacific 
Indian 
Indian 
Pacific 
Indian 

Indian 
Arctic 
Pacific 
Arctic 
Pacific 



Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Indian 



Indian 
Indiau 



558 



APPENDIX II 



SOME OP THE LARGE LAKES OF THE WORLD 



Area in Elevation Greatest 

Square in Depth in 

Miles Feet Feet 

Aral Sea 26,900 160 225 

Baikal 12,500 1,312 4,550 

Balkash 7,800 780 70 

Caspian 169,000 -85 1 2,400 

Chad, variable with 

season 10,000 

and often more 800-900 12 

Dead Sea 370 -1,310 » 1,330 

Erie 9,990 573 210 

Great Bear Lake . . 11,200 200 

Great Salt Lake... 2,000 4,218 80-50 

Great Slave Lake.. 10,100 - over 650 
1 Below sea level 



Area in Elevation Greatest 

Square in Depth in 

Miles Feet Feet 

II uron 22,322 5S2 750 

Ladoga 7,000 00 730 

Michigan 21,729 5S2 870 

Nicaragua 3,600 110 83 

Nyassa 14,000 1,500 600+ 

Ontario 7,104 247 738 

Superior 30,829- 602 1,008 

Tangan vika 12,650 2,800 2,100 

Titieaca 3,300 12,875 700 

Victoria Nyanza — 30,000 4,000 590+ 

Winnipeg 9,400 710 70 



DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND 



Mongolians 540,000,000 

China 380,000,000 

Japan and Korea 55,000,000 

Indo-China 35,000.00(1 

Malaysia 30,000.000 

Other Mongolians 40,000,000 

Caucasians 770,000,000 

Europe 355,000,000 

Asia 280,000,000 

America 115,000,000 

Africa , 15,000,000 

Australasia 5,000,000 



Ethiopians 173,000,000 

Africa and Madagascar 153,000,000 

North and South America 20,000,000 

American Indians 22,170,000 

Mexico 8,765,000 

Brazil 4,200,000 

Colombia 3, 150,000 

Peru 2,700,000 

Bolivia, Guatemala, and 

Venezuela 4,225,000 

United States 250,000 

Canada 100,000 



RELIGIONS OF MANKIND 



Buddhists and Brahmins 650,000,000 I Mohammedans 180.000,000 

Christians 440,000,000 Pagans and others 250,000,000 

Jews 8,000,000 I 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 



a, as in fat; a, as in fate; a, as in far; «, as in fall; e, as in pen; 
e, as in mete; e, as in her; i, as in- pin; i, as in pine; o, as in not; o, as 
in note; o, as in move; u, as in tub ; u, as in mute; ii, as in pull; g, as 
in gre£; </, as in gem; c, as in cat; 5, as in ceui. 

A double dot under a, e, or o (a, e, o) indicates that its sound is short- 
ened to that of u in but. 

Italicized letters are silent. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the 
accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where 
Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. 



Aa'-chen, 286, 298. 
Ab-er-de>n', 183, 199, 256. 
Ab-ys-sin'-i-a, 116, 416, 455. 
Abyssinian Mountains, 433. 
A-con-ca'-gua (gwa), 98. 
A-crop'-5-lis, 347, 349. 
Ad'-e-laide, 477. 
A '-den, 374. 
Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 489. 
Ad-ri-at'-ic, 323, 328, 338, 339. 
iEgean (e-je'-an) Sea, 338. 
Af-g/jan-is-tan', 376. 
Af'-ri-ca, 415-460. 
Agriculture, 79, 498-504. 
Aix-la-Chapelle (as-la-sha-pel'), 
Al-a-ba'-ma, 369, 502, 505, 507. 
Alapaca, 109, 141. 
A-las'-ka, 44, 46, 515. 
Al'-ba-ny (ni), 298, 505, 512. 
Al-ca'-zar, 247. 
Al'-der-ney (ni), 181. 
A-lru'-tian (shun) Islands, 

515. 
Al-ex-an'-dri-a, 435, 438. 



Al-ge'-ri-a, 59, 236, 427, 439-443. 
Al-giers' (jerz), 443. 
Al-ham'-bra, 239, 247. 
Allegheny (al'-e-ga-ni), 505. 
Alps, 151, 152, 155, 223-225, 282, 

301, 302, 311-313, 322, 356, 382. 
Al-sace' (zas) Lor-rame', 280. 
Am'-a-zon, 104, 112, 113, 118, 129, 

136, 142. 
A-mir' (mer), 377. 
Am'-ster-dam, 214, 215. 
An'-des(dez),96, 102, 129, 133. 136, 

139, 143. 
An-dor'-ra, 223, 240, 324. 
. Angles (ang'-glz), 173. 

Anglo Saxon (ang'-glo sak'-son), 

173. 
Animals, 52. 

Antarctic (an-tark'-tik), 145, 548. 
An-til'-les (lez), 522. 
Anti-trade Winds, 26. 
6, Ant'-werp, 219, 220, 229. 

Ap-jja-lach'-i-an Mts., 463, 489. 
Appalachian Plateau, 489. 
559 



560 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Ap'-pen-nines (ninz), 311, 312, 316, 

319, 323. 
Ap'-pi-an Way, 316. 
A-ra'-bi-a, 361, 372-374. 
Ar'-al Sea, 265, 359. 
Ar'-a-rat, 366. 
Arc/i-an'-gel, 264. 
Ar-c/ti-pel'-a-go, 350. 
Arc'-tic Ocean, 199, 255, 548. 
A-re-qui'-pa (ra-ke), 139, 140. 
Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 60, 105, 111, 118- 

123, 127, 229, 524, 525, 526, 527. 
Ar-i-zo'-na, 430, 431, 507, 509, 514. 
Ar'-kan-sas (saw), Fig. 360. 
Ar-me'-ni-ans, 368, 369. 
Ar'-yans, 387. 

As-cen'-sion (shon) Island, 458. 
Ash'-land, 506. 
Asia (a'-shi'a), 353, 414. 
Asia Minor, 367, 383, 387. 
Asphaltum, 146. 
Asuncion (a-son-the-on'), 125. 
A-ta-ca'-ma Desert, 104, 143. 
Ath'-ens (enz), 349. 
At-lan'-ta, 493, 501, 502, 507, 513. 
At-lan'-tic Ocean, 48, 548. 
At'-las Mountains, 415, 427, 439. 
Awck'-land, 480. 
A?i-gus'-ta, Ga., 502. 
Atts-tra-la'-sia (sha), 480, 525, 527, 

529, 537, 538. 
A7<s-tra'-li-a, 66, 201, 206, 229, 461- 

477, 479, 480, 524, 526, 530. 
Aws'-tri-a, 279, 326-337, 525. 
A?«s'-tri-a Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 326- 

337, 527, 528. 
Auvergue (o-varny'), 223, 226. 
Axis, Inclination of, 11. 
A-zores' (zorz) Islands, 250. 
Az'-tecs (teks), 108, 519. 

Babylon (bab'-i-lon), 372. 
Bag-dad', 372. 
Ba-ha'-mas, 315, 522. 



Bahia (ba-e'-a), 118. 

Baikal (bl'-kal), 379. 

Ba-ku' (ko), 271. 

Bal-kan' Mountains, 342. 

Balkan Peninsula, 338-352. 

Bal'-kash, Fig. 241. 

BaWa-rat', 477. 

Bal'-tic Sea, 152, 156, 252, 262, 284. 

Bal'-ti-more, 245, 495, 504, 505, 512. 

Bal-u-chis-tan' (6), 382, 390. 

Bang-kok', 394, 395. 

Ban'-gor, 494. 

Bar'-ba-ry (ri) States, 427, 439- 

443. 
Bar-ce-lo'-na, 248. 
Bar'-men, 298. 
Ba'-sel (zel), 306. 
Ba-ta'-vi-a, 482. 
Bath, 494. 
Ba-va'-ri-a, 299. 
Bay City, 495. 
Bed'-o-ins (inz), 426, 436. 
Beet Sugar, 286, 288, 534. 
Bel '-fast (or fast), 191, 200. 
Bel'-gi-um, 150, 152, 212, 216-221, 

227, 261, 282, 286, 456, 524, 537. 
Bel-grade', 342. 
Belize (be-lez'), 520. 
Belt of Calms, 26, 30, 31, 102, 358. 
Be-na'-res (rez), 392. 
Ben'-di-go, 477. 
Ben-gal', Bay of, Fig. 241. 
Ben Nev'-is, 177. 
Ben'-ue (we) River, 452. 
Ber-bers (berz), 427, 440. 
Ber'-gen, 255, 256, 257. 
Be'-ring Straits, 353. 
Ber-lin', 292-295, 335. 
Ber-mu'-das, 66, 522. 
Berne, 307. 
Beth'-a-ny (ni), 368. 
Beth'-ie-^em, 370, 372. 
Bey (ba), 440. 
Bhutan (bho-tan'), 390. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



561 



Bil-ba'-o, 245. 

Bing'-en, 285. 

Bir'-ining-ham (ber), Ala., 184, 507. 

Bir'-ming-ham (um), Eng., 184, 188, 

192. 
Bis'-kra, 427. 
Black Race, 71, 422. 
Black Sea, 264, 338, 344, 345, 366. 
Bloem'-fon-tein, Fig. 297. 
Boers (bors), 444. 
Bo-go-ta', 133. 
Boise (boi'-ze), 362. 
Bo-k/ia'-ra, 378, 379. 
BO-liv'-i-a, 102, 108, 124, 129, 140- 

142, 529. 
Bom-bay', 385, 391, 393. 
Boo'-me-rang, 468, 469. 
Bordeaux' (bor-do'), 234, 250. 
Bor'-ne-o, 481. 
Bosnia (boz'-ni-a), 337. 
Bos'-po-rus, 339, 345. 
Bos'-tpn, 117, 225, 292, 316, 495, 

510, 512. 
Brad'-ford, 186, 192. 
Bra/i'-man-ism (izm), 93, 387. 
Bra/i-ma-pu'-tra (poo), 382. 
Brah'-mins (minz), 365, 558. 
Bra-zil', 55, 102, 105, 110, 111, 112- 

118, 234, 523, 524, 534, 537, 538. 
Brazilian Highland, 99. 
Brem'en, 277, 279, 296. 
Bres'-lau (lou), 287, 292, 296. 
Bridge'-port, 507. 
Brindisi (bren'-de-se), 309. 
Bris'-bane, Fig. 338. 
Bris'-tol, 194, 197, 201. 
Brit'-ish Af'-ri-ca, 457. 
Brit'-ish Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), 517. 
Brit'-ish Empire, 196, 202, 389, 470, 

477, 523. 
Brit'-ish Guiana (ge-a'-na), 126. 
Brit'-ish Hon-du'-ras (do), 520. 
Brit'-ish Isles, 154, 156, 162, 167, 

173-207, 225, 226, 236, 252, 253, 
2o 



255, 257, 347, 389, 406, 409, 471, 

479, 525. 
Brock'-ton, 501, 510. 
Brus'-sels, 219. 
Bucharest (bo-ka-resf), 343. 
Bu'-da-pest (boo), 334, 336. 
Buddhism (bo'-dizm), 92, 365, 387, 

394, 395, 409, 558. 
Buenos Aires (bwa'-nos i'-res), 123. 
Buf'-fa-lo, 262, 505, 506, 511, 512. 
Bul-ga'-ri-a, 338, 340, 342, 343. 
Bun'-des-rat/i (bon), 280. 
Bur'-ling-ton (ber), 494. 
Burma (ber'-ma), 81, 362, 390, 394. 
Butte (but), 244, 507. 
By-zan'-tium (bi), 344. 

Ca'-diz, 247. 

Cairo (ki'-r5), 426, 430, 433, 437, 
438. 

Cal-cut'-£a, 384, 391, 393. 

Cal-i-for'-ni-a, 44, 137, 161, 242, 248, 
406, 430, 440, 468, 469, 475, 481, 
491, 497, 498, 509. 

Cal-la'-o, 138, 139, 145. 

Cal'-u-met, 507. 

Cam'-bridge, England, 197. 

Cam'-bridge, 511. 

Cam'-den, 505. 

Cam'-pos, 55, 105. 

Can'-a-da, 28, 38, 39, 44, 46, 105, 
151, 157, 160, 162, 166, 201, 206, 
236, 357, 390, 470, 479, 495, 515, 
516-518, 524, 525, 530, 537, 538. 

Ca-na'-ry (ri) Islands, 249, 458. 

Can'-cer, Tropic of, 13. 

Can-ta'-bri-an Mountains, 241, 244. 

Can-ton', 397, 404. 

Caoutchouc (ko'-chuk), 115. 

Cape Breton (brit'-on) Island, 518. 

Cape Colony, 426, 444-451, 524. 

Cape of Good Hope, 425. 

Cape Town, 426, 437, 444, 450, 451. 

Cape Verde Islands, 250, 458. 



562 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic of, 12. 

Ca-ra'-cas, 128. 

Caravan, 428-430. 

Car'-dif/, 197. 

Car-ib-be'-an Sea, 99, 522. 

Car-pa'-thi-an Mountains, 326. 

Cascade' Ranges, 359, 491. 

Cash-mere', 381. 

Cas'-pi-an Sea, 264, 265, 267, 359, 

375, 530. 
Cattle, Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 119. 
Cattle Ranching, 499, 517. 
Caw-ca'-sus, 150, 151, 265. 
Caw-ca'-sian Race,. 74, 165. 
Cayenne (ka-yen'), 127. 
Celebes (sel'-e-bez), 481. 
Qelts, 278. 

Qen'-tral Amer'-i-ca, 520, 521, 537. 
Central" States, 491, 495, 500, 501, 

507, 509. 
Cettinge (chet-ten'-ya), Fig. 200. 
Ceylon (se-lon'), 357, 363, 382, 393. 
Chad, Lake, 418, 455. 
Channel Islands, 181. 
Charles'-ton (charlz), 494, 509. 
Charlotte (shar'-lot), 502. 
Chat-£a-noo'-ga, 494, 507, 513. 
Chem'-nitz (nits), 287, 296. 
Chi-ca'-go (she), 195, 292, 404, 495, 

500, 506, 511, 512, 513. 
Chile (chil'-a), 103, 104, 130, 132, 

140, 142-145, 529. 
Chim-bo-ra'-z5, 134. 
Chl-na, 230, 355, 362, 364, 396-405, 

410, 524, 526, 535, 536, 537. 
Chin-cho'-na, 138. 
Chl-nese' (nez) Empire, 523, 396-405. 
Chris-ti-a'-ni-a (ne-a), 256, 257. 
Christian Religion, 93, 166, 370, 558. 
Qin-cm-na'-ti, 185, 500, 513. 
Cities, 85. 
Ciudad Bolivar (se-o-dad' bo'-le- 

var), 127. 
Cleve'-land, 506, 512. 



Climate, 41. 

Clothing, 86. 

Clyde (klld), 188, 189, 198. 

Coal, 153, 183, 487, 504, 505, 506, 

518, 527, 528. 
Coastal Plains, 489. 
Coast Ranges, 491. 
Co'-ca, 137. 
Co'-came, 137. 
Co'-co«, 134. 

Coffee, 516, 519, 521, 533, 534. 
Coffee, Bra-zil', 116. 
Cohoes (ko-hoz'), 298. 
Cold Pole, 359. 
Co-%ne', 281, 287, 297, 298. 
Co-lom'-bi-a (be), 55, 129, 132-133. 
Col-o-ra'-do, 175, 277, 509. 
Col-o-ra'-do Can'-yon, 242, 431. 
Col-os-se'-um, 320, 321. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), District of, 514. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) River, 495. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), S.C., 502. 
Co-luin'-bus, Ga., 502. 
C6-lum'-bus, Ohio, 501, 512. 
Commerce, 511-514, 530-539. 
Commons, House of, 205. 
Con-nect'-i-cut, 508. 
Con-stan-ti-no'-ple, 275, 335, 339, 

343, 344, 345, 346. 
Continental climate, 358. 
Continents, 3. 
C5-pen-ha'-gen, 261, 262. 
Copper, 506, 507, 518. 
Copts, 436. 

Coral Reefs, 65, 481, 482, 483, 463. 
Cor'-do-ba, 123. 
Cor-fu' (fo), 350. 
Cork, Fig. 122. 

Corn, 109, 495, 497, 500, 519, 524. 
Cor'-si-ca, Fig. 200. 
Cos'-sacks, 270, 362. 
Costa Rica (kos'-ta ri'-ka), Fig. 399. 
Cotopaxi (co-to-pax'-i), 133. 
Cotton, 109, 501, 519, 525, 526. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



563 



Cotton Manufacturing, 502. 
Crete, 350. 
Crip'-ple Creek, 508. 
Cu'-ba, 502, 515, 524, 534, 535. 
Cuzco (coz-cd'), 109, 140. 
Cyclonic Storms, 38, 161, 493. 
Cy'-prus, Fig. 241. 
Czar, 269. 

Dal'-Zas, 500. 

Da-mas'-cus, 370, 371. 

Dan'-ube, 299, 327, 332, 333, 334, 

336, 338, 339, 341, 342. 
Dan'-vh7e, 503. 
Dar-da-nelles' (nelz), 339. 
Dar'-ling Eiver, 463. 
Day-ton, 501. 
Dead Sea, 369, 371. 
Deflection, right and left hand, 28. 
Degrees, 15. 
Del-a-go'-a Bay, 451. 
Del'-a-ware, 505. 
Del'-hl, 387. 
Delta, 431, 432. 

Den'-mark, 173, 251-254, 261-262. 
Den'-ver, 508, 512. 
Deserts, 30-33, 57, 358, 427, 465. 
Des Moines (de-moin'), 501. 
De-troit , 321, 506, 512. 
Di'-a-monds, 448. 
Dikes, 211, 313. 
Dnieper (ne'-per), Fig. 172. 
Dow'-ro, 250. 
Downs, 55. 

Dres'-den (drez), 287, 293, 294. 
Dub'-lin, 200. 

Dubuque (do-buk'), Fig. 361. 
Duluth (do-looth'), 480, 495, 506, 512. 
Dun-dee', 199. 
Durban (der'-ban), 451. 
Durft'-am, 503. 
Dutch, 209, 481, 482. 
Dutch Guiana (ge-a'-na), 126, 214. 
Dwina (dwe-na), Fig. 172. 



Earthquakes, 128, 139, 249, 355. 

Earth's Orbit, 11. 

East In'-dies (diz), 6, 214, 397, 403, 

480-482, 537, 538. 
Ebro (a'-bro), 241. 
Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor), 100, 104, 107, 

108, 129, 133-135. 
Eddies in ocean, 46-50. 
Edinburgh (ed'-n-bur-o), 178, 194, 
_ 199, 266. 

E'-gypt, 80, 164, 187, 369, 370, 424, 
_ 427, 430-439. 526. 
E-gyp'-tian (shan) Su-dan' (so) , 427, 

430, 455. 
El'-be, 292, 296, 337. 
El'-ber-feld, 298. 
El-bruz' (broz), 265. 
England (ing'-land), 152, 161, 173- 

187, 212, 216, 217, 226, 227, 278, 

470, 471, 473, 476, 479, 524, 528. 
English (ing'-glish), 173. 
English Channel, 156. 
Equator, 18. 

E'-qui-nox (kwi), 12, 13. 
E'-rie Canal, 511. 
E'-rie, Pa., 505. 
Eritrea (a-re-tra'-a), 456. 
Erzgebirge (erts'-ge-ber-ge), 282. 
Es-co'-ri-al, 246. 
Es'-ki-mos (moz), 266, 378, 518. 
Es'-sen, 298. 
E-thi-o'-pi-ans, 71, 558. 
E-thi-o'-pi-an Zone, 422. 
Et'-na, Fig. 200. 

Euphrates (u-fra'-tez), 363, 368, 372. 
Eurasia ( u-ra'-she-a) , 149. 
Europe (u'-rop), 149, 352. 
Ev-aus-vil?e (anz), 500. 
Ev'-er-est, Mt., 355. 
Exports, 533-539. 

FaZk'-land Islands, 145. 
FalZ Line, 489. 
FalJ River, 503, 510. 



564 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Fa'-roe Islands, 262. 

Fel'-Wi, 436, 438. 

Fe'-tish, 91. 

Fez, 443. 

Fiji (fe'-je), 483, 484. 

Fin'-land, 150, 270, 275. 

Fishing, 82, 495, 517. 

Fiuine (fe-o'-me), 337. 

Fjords (fyords), 156, 253, 257. 

Flan'-ders (derz), 218. 

Flax, 191. 

Flor'-ence (ens), 322. 

Flor'-i-da, 163, 489, 509. 

Food, 78. 

Forest, temperate, 61. 

Forest, tropical, 52, 104, 113. 

For-mo'-sa, 405, 406. 

Fort Worth, 500. 

Fo'-rum, 321. 

France (frans), 164, 167, 222-237, 
277, 279, 282, 288,289, 301, 303, 
315, 331, 332, 391, 440, 441, 524, 
525, 527, 528, 531-533, 535-539. 

Frankfort (frangk'-fprt), 299. 

Fred-er-ic-ton, 517. 

French Guiana (ge-a'-na), 127, 236. 

French In'-do Chl'-na, 394, 395. 

Fruits, 503, 504, 517, 519, 522. 

Fuchau (fo-chou'), 402. 

Fu-ji-ya'-ma (foo), 354. 

Gal-a-pa'-gos Islands, 145. 

Gal'-i-lee, Sea of, 369, 371. 

Gal'-ves-ton, Fig. 360. 

Gam'-bi-a," Fig. 297. 

Ganges (gan'-jez), 382, 388, 391, 392. 

Ga-ron'-?ie, 234. 

Ge-ne'-va, 306. 

Ge-ne'-va Lake, 151, 235, 306. 

Gen'-o-a, 305, 316, 323. 

George-town, 126. 

Geor'-gi-a, 494, 502. 

Ger'-man Af'-ri-ca, 457. 

Ger'-man'-ic Race, 278. 



Ger'-ma-ny (na), 150, 152, 154, 167, 
209, 212, 213, 227, 235, 252, 260, 
277-300, 303, 306, 314, 327, 331, 
332, 333, 523. 524, 525, 527, 528, 
531, 532, 533, 537, 538. 

Gey'-sers (gi), 262, 492. 

Ghent, 220. 

Gi-bral'-tar, 247, 248, 324. 

Glacial Period, 154, 178, 186, 282, 
284, 302, 487, 488. 

Gla'-cier (shier), 302. 

Glas'-goio, 178, 188, 189, 192, 194, 
196, 198. 

Glonces'-ter 183, 250, 256, 495. 

Gobi (go'-be), 396. 

Gold, 131, 508, 509, 515, 517, 530. 

Goth'- en-burg (borg), 259, 260. 

Government, 514. 

Granada (gren-a'-da), 239, 246. 

Grand Canal, 401. 

Grand Rap'-ids, 495. 

Grazing, 497, 519 ; development of, 
80. 

Great Barrier Reef, 463. 

Great Basin, 491. 

Great Britain (brit'-n), 145, 173- 
207, 218, 227, 229, 240, 251, 252, 
258, 260, 261, 271. 277, 281, 286, 
316, 324, 332, 377, 439, 447, 527, 
528, 531, 533, 537, 538. 

Great Lakes, 491, 500, 504, 511, 512, 
518. 

Great Plains, 60, 490. 

Great Wall, China, 398, 399. 

Greece (gres), 161, 164, 165, 333, 
339, 340, 346-350. 

Greeks, 164, 340, 368. 

Green'-land, 251, 262, 518. 

Green Mountains, 488. 

Green'-vilZe, 502. 

Green'-toich, 20, 197. 

Grimsby (grimz'-bi), 183. 

Guadalquiver (ga-dal-kwiv'-er), 241, 
242, 244. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 565 



Guam (gwam), 516. 
G?«a-te-ma'-la, 521, 534. 
Guayaquil (gwl-a-kel'), 135. 
G?«ern'-sey (zi) Islands, 181. 
Gm'ana (ge-a'-na). 125. 
Guiana (ge-a'-na) Highland, 99, 127. 
Guinea (gin'-i), 456. 
Gulf Stream, 49. 
Guth-rie, Fig. 360. 

Hag?<c, 215. 

Hal'-der-ra-bad" (da), Fig. 241. 

Haiti (ha'-ti), 521, 534. 

Hal'-i-fax, 517. 

Hal'-le, 296. 

Ham'-burg (berg), 277, 292, 296. 

Ham'-mer-fest, 257, 258. 

Han-kau' (kou), 404. 

Har'-ris-burg (berg), 505. 

Hart'-ford, 507. 

Ha-van'-a, 515. 

Havre (a'-vr), 229, 234. 

Hawaiian (ha-wa'-yan) Islands, 288, 

484, 502, 515, 524, 534, 535, 537. 
Hay, 497. 

Heat Equator, 26, 35. 
Heathens (hea-thens), 92, 558. 
He'-bron, 369. 
Hec'-la, Mt., 262. 
Hel'-Zas, 347. 
Hel'-sing-fors, 275. 
Her-cu-la'-ne-uin, 317. 
Herzegovina (hert-se-go-ve'-na) , 

337. 
Him-a-la'-ya, 355, 382, 385, 390. 
Hin'-dus (dos), 385, 389, 391, 392. 
Ho-ang-ho', 397, 398. 
Ho'-bart, Fig. 338. 
Ho'-bo-ken, 505, 514. 
Hogs, 500, 517. 
Hol'-Zand, 152, 154, 208-215, 216, 

219, 265, 282, 313, 426, 481. 
Holy Land, 368, 369-371. 
Hol'-yoke, 494. 



Hon-du'-ras (do), Fig. 399. 

Hong'-kong, 404. 

H5-no-lu'-lu (loo'-loo), Fig. 338. 

Horse Latitudes, 28, 102, 160, 242. 

Horses, 498, 499, 517. 

Houses, Sites for, 84. 

Hous'-ton, Fig. 360. 

Ho'-vas, 458. 

Hud'-son, 214, 297, 298. 

HulZ, 183, 194, 197. 

Human Race, 71. 

Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 326-337, 341. 

Hu'-ron, Fig. 357. 

Hur'-j'i-cane, 397. 

Ice'-land, 251, 262. 

I'-da-ho, 509. 

Il-Zi-nois', 252, 496, 498, 500, 505, 506. 

Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo), Fig. 338. 

Imports, 533-539. 

Incas (ing'-kaz), 73, 108, 109, 132, 
136, 137, 140. 

In'-di-a, 36, 37, 187, 201, 236, 309, 
359, 362, 364, 372, 373, 377, SSI- 
SOS, 524, 525, 526, -535, 536. 

In'-di-an Ocean, 548. 

In-di-an'-a, 498, 506, 509. 

In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 380, 501, 512. 

In'-di-ans, American, 72, 104, 107, 
108, 114, 558. 

Indian Territory, 514. 

In'-do Chl'-na, 236, 393. 

In'-dus, 382, 392. 

Inventions, 88. 

F-o-toa, 497, 498, 499, 500, 505. 

Iquique (e-ke'-ka), 144. 

Iron Ore, 184, 504-506, 518. 528. 

Iron Manufacturing, 188, 504, 518. 
528. 

Ir-a-wadi'^ 390. 

Ireland (I'-er-land), 162, 174, 186, 
189-191, 194, 199, 200, 261, 462. 

Ir-kutsk' (kotsk), 381. 

I'-so-therms, 41-44. 



566 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



It'-a-ly (la), 161, 164, 165, 167, 236, 
238, 300; 309-325, 331, 346, 347, 
348, 524, 525, 535, 536, 537. 

Jamaica, (Ja-ma'-ka), 521. 
Ja-pan', 6, 354, 364, 366, 405-412, 

518, 524, 535, 536, 537, 538. 
Jap-a-nese' Current, 46, 406, 515. 
Ja'-va, 214, 288, 481, 482, 534, 535. 
Jersey (jer'-zi) City, 505, 514. 
Jersey (jer'-zi) Islands, 181. 
Je-ru'-sa-lem (ro), 371, 373. 
Jews, 93, 369, 558. 
Jin-rik'-i-sha, 411. 
Johannesburg (yo-han'-es-berg) , 

447, 451. 
Jop'-lin, 508. 
Jop'-pa, 371. 
Jor'-dan River, 369. 
Juan' (hb-an) Fer-nan'-dez (deth), 

146. 
Juneau (jo-no'), 515. 
Jungles (jung'-gls), 385. 
Jura (jo'-ra) Mountains, 301. 
Jut'-land, 254. 

Ka-bul' (bol), 377. 
Kam-chat'-ka, Fig. 241. 
Ka-rne-run' (ron) , Fig. 297. 
Kan'-sas (zas), 498, 499, 509. 
Kan'-sas (zas) City, 500. 
Kenia (ka'-ne-a), Mt., Fig. 297. 
Ken-tuck'-y, Fig. 361. 
Khedive (ke-deV), 436, 438. 
Khiva (che'-va), 378. 
Kil-i-man-ja'-ro (e), 416. 
KiMar'-ney (ni) Lakes, 190, 200. 
Kim'-ber-ley (li), 448, 449, 451. 
Ki-o'-to (ke), 412. 
Kir-g/az' Steppes, 379. 
Klon'-dike, 515, 517. 
A"nox'-vilZe, 507. 

Kon'-go River, 237, 417, 418, 452, 
453." 



Kon'-go State, 219, 456. 
Konigsburg (ke'-nigs-berg), 281. 
Ko-re'-a, 405, 526. 
Kre-feid (kra), 298. 
Ku'-rile Islands (ko) 6, 406. 

Lab-ra-dor' (door), 157, 175. 

Labrador Current, 50. 

La Crosse, 495. 

La'-do-ga, Fig. 172. 

Language, development of, 87. 

La Paz (path), 142. 

Lap'-land, 252. 

Lap'-land-ers, 266. 

La Pla'-ta, 123. 

Las'-sa, 397. 

Lat'-i-tude, 18. 

Lawrence (la'-rens), 503. 

Lead'-viUe, 507, 508. 

Leeds (ledz), 186, 192. 

Leices'-ter, 187. 

Leipzig (lip'-tsig), 292, 294, 296. 

Leith, 199. 

Le'-na, Fig. 241. 

Le'-o-pold-viUe, 417. 

Lew'-is-ton (lu), 503. 

Li-be'-ri-a, 456. 

Lib'-y-an (i) Desert, 427, 430. 

Liech-ten-stein, 337. 

Liege (lyazh), 220. 

Life, Zones of, 52. 

Lille (lei), 228. 

Li'-ma (le), 138, 139. 

Limoges (le-mozh'), 234. 

Linen, 191. 

Lis'-bon (liz), 249. 

Little Rock, 494. 

Liv'-er-pool, 194, 196, 197. 

Llama (la'-ina), 109, 141. 

Llanos (la'-no), 55, 105, 127, 12f 

LocA Lo-mond, 179. 

Lodz, 275. 

Lof-6'-den Islands, 255. 

Loire (lwar), 226, 231. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 567 



Lon'-don, 174, 181, 183, 192-197. 
Longitude (lon'-gi-tud),- 19. 
Lords, House of, 205. 
Los An'-ge-les, 504, 513. 
Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'-a), 502, 503. 
Louisville (lo'-is-vil), 500, 503, 513. 
Louren§o Marquez (lo-ran'-so mar'- 

kes), 451. 
Lowvfe, 233. 
Low Countries, 152. 
Loio'-eU, 503. 
Low Pressure Areas, 38. 
Lu-cerne', Lake, 304, 307, 308. 
Luck'-now (nou), 392. 
Lumbering, 493, 494, 517. 
Luxemburg (luk'-sem-berg), 220. 
Lu-zon' (lo), Fig. 338. 
Lynchburg (linch'-berg), 503. 
Lynn (lin), 501. 
Lyon (li'-on), 229, 235. 

Mac-ken'-zie, Fig. 398. 

Mad-a-gas'-ear, 237, 458. 

Ma-det'-ra Islands, 250, 458. 

Ma-dras', 393. 

Ma-drid', 132, 242, 245, 24G, 272. 

Mag-da-le'-na (la) River, 133. 

Magdeburg (mag'-de-borg), 29G. 

Ma-gel'-Zan Strait, 122, 144. 

Mag-yars, 329. 

Main River, 299. 

Maine, 254, 494, 502. 

Mal'-a-ga, 248. 

Ma-lay' Peninsula, 393. 

Ma-lays', 394, 395, 464, 481. 

Mal'-ta, 324. 

Ma-na'-bs, 113. 

Man'-ches-ter, Eng., 187, 192, 198. 

Man'-ches-ter, N.H., 502. 

Man-chu'-ri-a, Fig. 241. 

Man'-da-la?/, 390. 

Man-di-o'-ca, 115. 

Ma-nil'-a, 482. 

Man-i-to-ba', 517. 



Mankind, 71. 

Manufacturing, 500-511, 518, 530, 

531. (Also many of the countries). 
Ma'-o'-ris (riz), 478. 
Maps, 22. 

Ma-ra-cai'-bo, 127. 
Marquette (mar-kef), 506. 
Marseille (mar-sal'), 234, 235. 
Maryland (mer'-i-land), 505. 
Mas-kat, 374. 
Mas-sa-chu' -setis, 502. 
Mat-ter-horn, 305. 
Mauritius (ma-rish-ius), 459. 
Mec'-ca, 374. 
Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an, 157, 163, 225, 

235, 243, 247, 309, 311, 314, 319, 

338, 346, 348, 366, 367, 419, 435. 
Me-kong' (ma), 395. 
Mel'-bourne (bern), 476. 
Me-los, 233. 

Mem'-phis (lis), 494, 501. 
Mer-ca-tor maps, 23. 
Merchant Marine, 532. 
Mer'-i-den, 19. 
Mes-o-po-ta'-mi-a, 368, 372. 
Metz (mets), 280, 281.' 
Mex'-i-co, 238, 488, 519, 520, 521, 

524, 529, 537, 538. 
Mex'-i-co City, 519, 520. 
Mich'-i-gan (mish), 244, 507, 509. 
Mi-ka'-do, 407, 408, 411. 
Mi-lan', 305, 311, 322, 323. 
Milk, 499. 

Mil-wart'-kee, 500, 506, 512. 
Min-da-na'-o (men), Fig. 338. 
Min-do'-ro (men), Fig. 338. 
Mining, 504-509. 
Ministers, British, 206. 
Min-»e-ap'-o-lis, 275, 495, 500, 512, 

517. 
Min-ne-so'-ta, 122, 252, 358, 493, 

498. 
Mir (mer), 269. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi, River, 417, 463, 491. 



568 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Mis-sis-sip'-pi, State, 502. 

Mis-soV-ri, 495, 500. 

Mo-bile' (bel), 494. 

Mo'-c/ia, 374. 

Mo-ham'-me-dans, 93, 239, 343, 365, 

374, 387, 558. 
Mo-luc'-ca Isds., Fig. 338. 
Mon'-a-co, 223. 
Mongol (mong'-gol), 387. 
Mon-go'-li-a, 396. 

Mon-go'-li-ans, 73, 390, 398. 407, 558. 
Mpn-ro'-vi-a, 456. 

Mon-soon', 34-37, 359, 382, 397, 465. 
Mon-ta'-na, 498, 509, 517. 
Mont Blanc. 224, 382. 
Mon-te-ne'-gro (na), 340, 341. 
Mon-te-vid'-e-o, 124. 
Mont-gora'-ery, 494. 
Mont-re-al',"311, 512, 517, 518. 
Moors (morz), 238, 239, 246. 
Mo-roc'co, 249, 427, 428, 439-443. 
Mos'-coic, 266, 271, 272. 
Mountains, 5. 
Mu'-nic/i, 299, 300. 
Mur'-riiy River, 463, 474. 

Na-go'-ya, 412. 

Na'-ples (plz), 311, 313, 316, 317. 

Nash'-vilZe, 494, 500, 513. 

Na-tal', 445. 

Natural Gas, 506. 507. 

Naz'-a-reth, 371. 

Ne-bras'-ka, 495. 

Negroes, 7i, 422, 423, 454. 

Ne-pal', 390. 

Neth'-er-lands, 208-215, 216, 217, 

219, 290, 482, 532, 537, 538. 
Ne-va'-da, 509. 
New'-ark, 505. 
New Bed'-ford, 503. 
New Bruns'-wick, 517. 
New Cal-e-do'-ni-a, 484. 
New Eng'-land (ing ) States, 50, 

51, 99," 151, 175,^177, 179, 180, 



182, 183, 186, 187, 188, 258, 281, 
304, 380, 481, 488, 489, 502, 507, 
509. 

New'-found-land, 236, 479, 516, 517. 

New Guinea (gin'-i), 84, 85, 291, 

480, 481. 

New Hamp'-shire, 502. 

New Ha'-ven, 507. 

New Jersey (jer'-zi), 505. 

New Mex'-i-co, 243, 498, 514. 

New Or'-le-ans, 288, 501, 503, 513. 

New South Wales (Walz), 470, 474, 

475, 477. 
New York City, 123, 174, 195, 196, 

220, 292, 298, 426, 505, 511, 512. 
New York State, 209, 216, 284, 301, 

481, 494, 497-499. 502, 509, 517. 
New Zea'-land, 478-480. 
Nl-ag'-a-ra Falls, 450. 51 1 . 
Nic-a-ra'-gua Canal, 437, 521. 
Nice (nes), 224. 

Nl'-ger, 237, 417, 452, 455. 

Nl'-ger Territories, 455. 

Nijni Novgorod (nezh'-ni nov'-go- 

. rod), 272. 

Nile, 56, 67, 417, 418, 424, 426, 430- 

434, 437, 438, 451, 455. 
Nip-on', 406. 
Nitrate of soda, 143. 
Nom'-ads, 59, 81, 376, 377, 426. 
Nor'-foZk, 495. 
Nor'-mans, 174. 
North A-mer'-i-ca. 487-522. 
North Atlantic Eddy, 48, 49. 
North Cape. 256, 258. 
North Car-o-li'-na, 502. 
North Da-ko'-ta, 122, 358, 498. 
Northmen, 251. 
North Sea, 156, 255, 284. 
Nor'-way, 150, 156, 236, 251-258, 

260, 261, 331, 532. 
Not'-£ing-/iam, Fig. 122. 
No'-va Sc5'-tia (sco'-sha), 517, 518. 
Nu'-bians, 424. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 569 



Nu'-rem-berg, 300. 
Nyas'-sa, Lake, 457. . 

Oak'-land, 514. 

O-a'-ses (sez), 58, 421,428. 

Oats, 495, 496. 

Ob, Fig. 241. 

Ob'-e-lisk, 435. 

Ocean Basins, 3. 

Ocean Currents, 45, 143, 145, 161, 

492. 
Ocean life, 64. 
O'-der, 292. 
O-des'-sa, 274, 336. 
O-hl'-o, 187, 271, 497, 498, 499, 500, 

505, 506, 509. 
O-hl'-o River, 490, 491. 
Ok-la-ho'-ma, 514. 
O'-ma-ha, 500. 
O-man', 374. 
On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, 517. 
O-por'-to, 249. 
Orange Free State, 444, 445. 
Orange River, 449. 
Orbit of Earth, 11. 
Or'-e-gon, 160, 496, 498. 
O-ri-no'-co, 99, 105, 127, 129. 
O-sa'-ka, 412. 
Osh'-kosh, 495. 
Ot'-£a-\va, -516, 517, 518. 
Ot'-£o-man Empire, 340, 343-346. 

365-372. 
Ox'-ford, 197. 

Pa-cjf'-ic Currents, 46. 
Pa-§if(-ic 3 Islands of, 482. 
Pa-cjif'-ic Ocean, 548. 
Pa-go'-da, 388, 402, 410. 
Pa-la-wan', Fig. 338. 
Pa-ler'-mo, 321. 
Pal'-es-tine, 367, 369-371. 
Pa-los', 243. 
Pam'-pas, 60, 105, 119. 
Pan-a-ma' Canal, 132, 437, 521. 
Pan-a-ma', IsMmus, 132. 



Panay (pa-ni'), Fig. 338. 
Papuans (pap'-o-ans), 480. 
Pa-ra', 116, 118. 
Par'-a-guay (gwi) Tea, 125. 
Parallels of Latitude, 18. 
Par-a-mar'-i-bo, 127. 
Pa-ra-na', 112, 122, 124. 
Par'-is, 229, 231-234, 246, 279, 335. 
Park Lands, 55. 
Par'-li-a-ment, 205. 
Pat-a-go'-ni-a, 103, 122. 
Pat'-er-son, 510. 
Paro-tuck'-et, 503. 
Peat, 153, 190. 
Pe-king', 358, 397, 405. 
Penn-syl-va'-ni-a, 183, 184, 271, 303, 

480, 490, 494, 498, 499, 504, 505, 

506, 507, 509. 
Pe-o'-ri-a, 500. 
Per-nam-bu'-co (bo), 118. 
Per'-sia (sha), 60, 80, 358, 374-376. 
Perth, Fig, 338. 
Pe-ru' (ro), 67, 108, 109, 129, 130, 

132, 136-140, 238. 
Peruvian Bark, 138. 
Petroleum, 506, 507, 531. 
Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 195, 335, 397, 503, 

505, 512, 513. 
Phil'-ip-pine Islands, 6, 288, 481, 

482, 502, 516, 524, 534, 535, 537. 
Pfed'-mont Plateau, 489. 
P^e-ter-mar'-itz-burg, (its-borg), Fig. 

297. 
Pig Iron, 528. 
Pig'-mies (miz), 454. 
Pilgrims, 209. 
Pi-r«e'-us, 349. 
Pisa (pe-za), 315. 
PitZs-burg (berg), 183, 505, 507, 

512. 
Planets, 1. 
Plants, 52. 
Pla'-ta, 122. 
Po, 311, 312, 313, 319, 322, 382. 



570 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Po'-land, 275, 297, 326. 
Pom-pe'-ii (pa-ye), 817. 
Port' au (o) Fringe, Fig. 400. 
Port Ar'-thur, 46. 
Port'-land, Me., 494, 495. 
Port'-land, Ore., 495, 511, 514. 
Por'-to Ri'-co (re'-ko), 502, 515, 

534. 
Port Said (sa-ed'), 437, 439. 
Ports'-mouth, 194, 197. 
Por'-tu-gal, 110, 111, 238-250, 391, 

425, 440, 458. 
Po'-sen fzen), 281. 
Potato, 109. 
Pots'-dam, 293. 
Prae-to'-ri-a, Fig. 297. 
Pragwe, 332, 337, 
Prai'-ries, 61, 490. 
Prevailing Westerlies, 28, 31, 33, 

102, 160, 161. 
Pribilof (pre'-bel-of) Islands, 515. 
Prime Minister, 206. 
Prince Edward Island, 517. 
Prov'-i-dence, 337, 503, 508. 
Prussia (prush'-a), 279, 283, 293, 326. 
Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 507. 
Pueblo Indians, 108. 
Pu'-get Sound, 491. 
Pyramids, 425, 432-485. 
Pyrenees (pir'-e-nez), 151, 222, 241. 

Quebec (kwe-bek'), 236, 518. 
Queens'-land, 470, 472, 474. 
Queens'-town (toun), 200. 
Quinine (kwl'-nln), 138. 
Quito (ke'-to), 135. 

Railways, 511-514, 532. 

Rain, 28, 32. 

Rain Belts, 31. 

Raleigh (ra'-li), 503. 

Ran-goon', 390. 

Reral'-ing, 505. 

Reclaimed Land (Holland), 210. 



Red Men, See Indians. 

Red Sea, 354. 

Reichstag (rlQhs'-tag), 280. 

Reims (remz), 228. 

Religion, development of, 91. 

Reunion (ra-o-nyon'), 459. 

Revolution of Earth, 8, 11. 

R/une, 153, 208, 213, 283, 285, 287, 

296, 297, 298, 299, 334. 
Rhode Is'-land, 502. 
Rhone, 151, 225, 229, 231, 235, 302. 
Rice, 535, 536. 
Rich'-mond, 503. 
Riga (re'-ga), 274. 
Rigi (re'-gi), Mt., 308. 
Rio de Janeiro (re'-o da zha-ne'-ro), 

117. 
Ro-a-n5ke', 505. 
Roc'h'-es-ter, 337, 501, 503, 505. 
Rock'-y Mountains, 490, 491. 
R5'-man Empire, 165, 166, 167, 310, 

348, "368. 
Ro'-mans, 165, 166, 173, 195, 222, 

238, 340, 348, 368, 435. 
Rome, 165, 166, 309, 310, 318, 319- 

321, 335. 
Ro-sa'-ri-o (re), 123. 
Rotation of Earth, 8. 
Rot'-£er-dain, 215, 298. 
RoM-baix', 228. 
R6-uen' (on), 229, 234. 
Rou-ma'-ni-a, 338, 340, 342, 343. 
Rubber, 115, 135, 521, 530, 531. 
Russia (rush'-a), 50, 61, 62, 153, 154, 

161, 162, 225, 236, 252, 264-276, 

282, 327, 328, 378-381, 523-528, 

530, 531, 532, 533. 
Rut'-land, 509. 

Sac-ra-men'-to, 374. 

Sag"-i-naw, 495. 

Sa-ha'-ra Desert, 30, 33, 58, 237, 

249, 419, 427-430. 
St. Etienne (san-ta-tyen'), 227, 229. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY CM 



St. Goth'-ard Tunnel, 305, 306. 

St. He-le'-na, 458. 

St. Hel'-ens (enz), Mt., 5. 

St. John, 517, 518. 

St. John's, 517. 

St. Joseph, 501. 

St. Laio'-renQe, 512, 517, 518. 

St. Louis (lo'-is), 123, 296, 346, 438, 

500, 501, 503, 512, 513. 
St. Paul, 501, 512. 
St. Pe'-ter's, 3 19, -321. 
St. Pe'-ters-burg (berg), 157, 273, 

274, 335. 
Salt Lake City. 504. 
Sa-mar', Fig. 338. 
Sa-mo'-a, 484, 516. 
San An-to'-ni-o (ne), Fig. 360. 
San Fran-cis'-co, 160, 511, 513, 514, 

516. 
San Juan (hwan), 515. 
San Ma-ri'-no (re), 324. 
San'ta Y6 (fa), Fig. 362. 
San Sal'va-dor, Fig. 399. 
San-ti-a'-go (te), 145. 
San'-tos, 117, 118. 
Saone, 231. 
Sao (san) Fran-cis'-co (kes), Fig. 

75. 
Sao Paulo (san pou'-lo), 118. 
Sar-din'-i-a, 309. 
Sar'-sa-pa-ril'-la, 135. 
Sa-van'-?ia/i, 494. 
Sa-van'-nas, 55, 103, 418, 419. 
Saxons (sak'-snz), 173. 
Saxony (sak'-sn-i), 294. 
Scan-di-na'-vi-a, 150, 167, 252, 347. 
Scot'-land, 150, 174, 187, 198, 199. 
Scran'-ton, 183, 505. 
Se-at'-rte, 495, 511. 
Seeland (ze'-land) Island, 262. 
Seine (san), 153, 228, 229, 230, 234. 
Seoul (sol), Fig. 241. 
Ser'-vi-a, 328, 340, 341. 
Seville (sa-vel'-ya), 242, 244, 247. 



Sevres (savr), 234. 

Sha/t, 376. 

Shang-hai' (hi), 400, 401, 405. 

Shas'-ta, Mt., 491. 

Sheep, Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 120. 

Sheep, AiiS-tra'-li-a, 471. 

Sheep Raising. 498, 517, 526. 

Shef'-J?eld, 188, 192. 

Shelter, 82. 

Shet'-land Islands, 181. 

Si-am', 394, 395. 

Si-be'-ri-a, 264, 265, 357, 358, 359, 

378-381, 396. 
Sicily (sis'-i-li), 157, 309, 314, 321. 
Si-er'-ra (se) Le-o'-ne, 456. 
Si-er'-?-a (se) Ne-va'-da Mts., 491. 
Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da (Spain), 241. 
Silk, 226, 229, 535. 
Silver, 131, 508, 509, 520, 529. 
Simplon (san-plan') Tunnel, 306. 
Sin-ga-pore', 395. 
Sit'-ka, 515. 

Slavs, 268, 278, 329, 340. 
Smyrna (smer'-na), 367. 
Snake River, 382. 
So-fi'-a (fe), Fig. 200. 
Solar System, 2. 
So-ma'-li-land (le), 456. 
Som'-er-vil/e, 511. 
South Af -ri-ca, 426, 444, 471, 530. 
South A-mer'-i-ca, 96-148. 
South Aws-tra'-li-a, 470, 474, 475. 
South Car-o-ll'-na, 502. 
South Da-ko'-ta, 122, 358, 491, 509. 
Southern States, 187, 386, 494, 535. 
South Geor'-gi-a, 145. 
South-amp'-ton, 194, 197. 
Spam, 108, 109, 110, 111. 131, 136, 

161, 164, 167, 209, 223, 238-250. 

311, 312, 347, 440, 443, 456, 458, 

471, 519, 524. 525, 528. 
Spice Islands, 482. 
Spring'-field, Mass., 507. 
Standard Time, 21, 22., 



572 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Stan'-ley (li) Pool, 452, 453. 

Stars, 1. 

Stass -furt (fort), 286. 

State, development of, 89. 

Steppes (steps), 60, 379. 

Stet-tin' (ten), 292, 297. 

Stock'-holm, 257, 259, 260. 

Storms, Cyclonic, 38. 

Straits Set'-Jle-ments, 394, 395. 

Strass'-burg (borg), 280, 281. 

Strat'-ford-on-A'-von, 200. 

Stuttgart (stot'-gart), 282. 

Sucre ( soo'-kra), Fig. 75. 

Sudan (so-dan'), 237, 455. 

Su-ez' (so), 438. 

Su-ez' (so) Canal, 438, 439. 

Su-ez' (so) Isthmus, 354, 438. 

Sugar, 503, 515, 516, 519, 521, 522, 

534, 535. 
Sugar Beets, 286, 288, 534. 
Sultan, 343. 

Sulu (so-lo') Islands, Fig. 338. 
Su-ma'-tra (so), 481. 
Su-pe'-ri-pr (so), 495, 506. 
Su-pe'-ri-pr (so), Lake, 491. 
Surinam (so-re-nam'), 126. 
Swansea (swon'-se), 245. 
Swe'-d'en, 150, 245, 251-254, 258- 

260, 261, 331. 
Swit'-zer-land, 153, 235, 301-308. 

315, 537. 
Syd'-ney, 476, 477. 
Syr'-a-cuse, 505, 510. 
Syrian (sir'-i-an) Desert, 370. 



Ta-co'-ma, 495, 511. 
Ta-fi-let' (fe), 428. 
Ta'-gus River, 249. 
Tan-gan-yi'-ka (ye), 446, 457, 
Tan-gier' (jer), 443. 
Tap-i-o'-ca, 115. 
Tar'-tars (tarz), 368. 
Tash-kend', 380. 381. 



Tas-ma'-ni-a (taz), 463, 465, 470, 

474, 475. 
Tami'-tpn, 503. 

Tea, 383, 384, 390, 515, 535, 536. 
Te-heran', 376, 378. 
Temperate Forest, 61. 
Temperate Zone, 37. 
Ten-?ies-see, Fig. 360. 
Teu'-tons, 268. 

Tex'-as, 480, 495, 499, 500, 502, 519. 
Thames (temz), 192, 194. 
Tl'-ber, 319, 320. 
Tl-be'-ri-as, 371. 
Tib'-et, 356, 396, 397. 
Tientsin?(te-en'-tsen'), 405. 
Ti-er'-radel Fue-go (fua), Fig. 75. 
Tif-lis' (les), 380. 
Ti'-gris, 368, 372. 
Tim-buk'-tu (to), 428, 455. 
Ti-mor' (te), 481. 
Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te), 139, 140. 
Tobacco, 503, 515, 516, 519, 521. 
T5-ba'-go, 146. 
To'-ki-o (ke), 409, 410, 411. 
To-le'-do, 500, 506. 
Tonga (tong'-ga) Islands, 482. 
To-ron'-to, 517, 518. 
Towns, 85. 
Trade Winds, 26, 30, 31, 33,' 100, 

102, 130, 160, 161, 464. 
Trans-vaal', 445, 446, 447, 448, 451. 
Treb'-i-zond, 367. 
Tren'-ton, 185, 509. 
Trieste (tre-esf), 337. 
Trin-i-dad', 146. 
Trip'-o-li, 427, 440-444. 
Trondhjem (trond'-yem), 258. 
Trop'-ic, 12. 

Tropical Forest, 52, 104, 113. 
Troy, 298, 505, 510. 
Tun'-dras, 63, 157, 266, 359, 378. 
TCx'-nis, 236. 427, 440-444. 
Tfi'-rin, 322, 323. 
Tur-kes-tan' (ter), 378, 379, 380. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 573 



Tur-kes-tan' (ter), Chinese, 396. 
Turkey (ter'-ki), 340, 343-346. 365- 

372, 374, 376, 436. 
Tutuila (to-to-il'-a), 516. 
Typhoons (tl-fons'), 397. 

United Kingdom, 173-207, 236, 287 : 
309, 526, 527, 528, 532, 538. 

U-ni'-ted States, 21, 28, 38, 39, 44 
46, 61, 83, 100, 103, 105, 111, 112 
116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 132, 141 
144, 157, 160, 162, 166, 175, 176 
179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 187 
189, 191, 196, 203, 205, 218, 224 
225, 228, 234, 244, 252, 258, 264 
267, 269,. 270, 271, 283, 284, 292 
296, 317, 330, 354, 358, 359, 378 
379, 382, 383, 402, 407, 408, 427 
448, 461, 465, 466, 471, 475, 482 
489-516, 518, 523-541. 

Upernivik (6-per'-ni-vik), 257. 

U'-ral Mountains, 152, 270. 

Uruguay (6-ro-gwI'), 123. 

U'-ta/i, 504, 509. 

U'-ti-ca, 503. 

Va-len'-cia (shia), 248. 
Val-pa-rai'-so, 145. 
Van-cou'-ver (ko), 518. 
Vat'-i-can, 318, 321. 
Ven-e-zue'-la (zwe), 55, 127, 534. 
Ven'-ice, 311, 322, 323, 324. 
Ve'-ra Cruz (kroz) , 520. 
Ver-mont', 509. 
Versailles (ver-salz'), 234. 
Ve-su'-vi-us (so), 316, 317, 318. 
Viceroy, 390, 392. 
Vic-to'-ri-a (Australia), 470, 477. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, 518. 
Vic-to'-ri-a Falls, 417, 450. 
Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an'-za, 457, 458. 
Vi-en'-rea, 327, 330, 334, 335, 336. 
Vir-gin'd-a (ver), 157, 506. 
Vla-di-vos-tok' (de), 46, 381. 



Vol-ca'-noes, 5, 133, 481. 
Vol'-ga, 272. 

Wales (walz), 175, 184. 

Wal'-fisch Bay, 451. 

War'-sau>, 275. 

Wash'-ing-ton, 514. 

Wash'-ing-ton, State, 160, 491, 517. 

Wa'-ter-bury (ber-i), 508. 

Wa-terdoo', 216. 

Wealth, 533. 

Wei' -Zand Canal, 512. 

Wel'-Zing-ton, 480. 

West Aws-tra/di-a, 470. 

West Ham, Fig. 122. 

West Indies (in'-diz), 262, 288, 397, 

521, 537, 538. 
West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 271, 490, 

505. 
West Wind Drift, 48. 
Wheat, 497, 498, 517, 519, 525. 
Wheat, Ar-gen-ti'-na, 121. 
Wheel'-ing, 505. 
White Mountains, 488. 
White Race, 74. 

Wilkes Barre (wilks'-bar-a) , 183. 
Wil'-ming-ton, 504, 505. 
Winds, 25. 

Winds, influence on climate, 44. 
WincZ-sor (zor) Castle, 195, 197. 
Win'-ni-peg, 517. 
Wis-con'-sin, 252, 494, 495. 
Wool, 527. 

Worcester (wus'-ter), 507. 
Wu'-chang, 404. 
Wy-6'-ming (wi), 498. 

Ya-kowt', 379. 

Yang'-tse-ki-ang' (ke), 355, 397. 
Yar'-mouth, 517. 
Yellow Race, 73. 

Yel'-Zoro-st5ne Park, 262, 478, 492. 
Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e), Fig. 241. 
I Yer'-ba Ma'-te, 125. 



574 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Yo-ko-ha'-ma, 407, 409, 411. 
Yonkers (yongk'-erz), 298. 
Yu-ca-tan', 521. 
Yu-kon, 515. 

Zam-be'-si (ze), 417, 449, 451. 
Zan-zi-bar', 459. 



Zones, 15. 

Zones of Life, 52. 

Zuider Zee (zi-der ze), 211, 213. 

Zulu (zo'-16), 422, 428, 445, 446. 

Zululand (zo'-16-land), 446. 

Zu-rich (zo'-rik), 305. 

Zu-rich (zo'-rik), Lake, 305. 






TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 

A Three=Volume Series of Text=Books for Class Use 

BY 

RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

Cornell University 
AND 

FRANK M. MCMURRY, Ph.D. 

Teachers' College, Columbia University 



VOLUflE I. — Home Geography and the Earth as a Whole ... $ .60 
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PART I. Home Geography — The Soil — Hills — Mountains — Valleys — 
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merce — Government — Maps — References to Books, etc. 

PART II. The Earth as a Whole — Form and Size of the Earth — 
Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results — The Zones — Heat within the 
Earth and its Effects — The Continents and Oceans — Maps — North 
America — -The United States: New England, Middle Atlantic States, 
Southern States, Central States, Western States, Alaska — Canada and 
Other Countries North of the United States — Countries South of the 
United States — South America — Europe — Asia — Africa — Australia — 
The East Indies — Philippines, and Other Islands of the Pacific — Books 
of Reference — Appendix. 

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PART I. A General Study of North America — Physiography of North 
America — ■ Summer, and Winter — Wind and Rain — Ocean Movements 
and Distribution of Temperature- — Climate, Plants, Animals, and Peoples 

— Latitude, Longitude, and Standard Time — The Continent of North 
America. 

PART II. The United States — NevY England — Middle Atlantic States 

— Southern States — Central States — The Western States — Territories 
and Dependencies of the United States. 

PART III. Other Countries of North America — Countries North of 
the United States — Countries South of the United States — Summary and 
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CONTENTS 

PART I. Introduction — Chapter I. Condition of the Earth — Chapter II. 

The Universe. 
TART II. The Atmosphere — Chapter III. General Features of the Air — 

Chapter IV. Light, Electricity, and Magnetism — Chapter V. Sun's Her. t 

— Chapter VI. Temperature of the Earth's Surface — Chapter VII. Winds 

— Chapter VIII. Storms — Chapter IX. Moisture in the Atmosphere — 
Chapter X. Climate — Chapter XI. Distribution of Animals and Plants. 

PART III. The Ocean — Chapter XII. General Description of the Ocean 

— Chapter XIII. The Movements of the Ocean. 

PART IV. The Land — Chapter XIV. The Earth's Crust — Chapter XV. 
The Wearing Away of the Land — Chapter XVI. River Valleys, including 
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— Chapter XVIII. Sea and Lake Shores — Chapter XIX. Plains, Plateaus, 
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TARR'S ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY 

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Chapter I. Introduction. 
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Earth — Chapter III. Important Elements and Minerals of the Earth's 
Crust — Chapter IV. The Igneous or Eruptive Rocks — Chapter V. Sedi- 
mentary and Metamorphic Rocks. 
PART II. Dynamic Geology — Chapter VI. Weathering — Chapter VII. 
Wind Erosion — Chapter VIII. Underground Water — Chapter IX. River 
Erosion — Chapter X. River and Lake Deposits — Chapter XL Glaciers 

— Chapter XII. Agents at Work in the Ocean — Chapter XIII. Deposi- 
tion in the Sea — Chapter XIV. Stratification — Chapter XV. Changes in 
the Stratified Rocks — Chapter XVI. Changes in Level of the Land — 
Chapter XVII. Mountains — Chapter XVIII. Volcanoes — Chapter XIX. 
Earthquakes and Geysers — Chapter XX. Metamorphism and Ore Deposits. 

PART III. Stratigraphic Geology — Chapter XXI. The Uses of Fossils 

— Chapter XXII. Life during the Archean and Paleozoic Times — Chap 
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